Schrogl / Mathieu / Peter Yearbook on Space Policy 2007/2008

From Policies to Programmes
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-211-99091-9
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 312 Seiten

At the time of ?nalising this second volume of the ?Yearbook on Space Policy? which covers the period mid-2007 to mid-2008, Europe is as visible and strong in the area of space activities as never before. Its space probes are present on the Moon, around Mars, and on Saturn?s Moon Titan, and are chasing asteroids and comets; Ariane V is the most successful commercial launch vehicle; and more and more European space applications satellites are in operation. Finally, with the successful launch of the Columbus Orbital Facility (COF) – the most prominent highlight of this period which is also depicted on the cover of this Yearbook – and the ?rst Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), Europe has become a decisive player in human space?ight. This is accompanied by new policy initiatives on the ministerial level which have been bringing the European Space Agency and the European Union steadily closer. Europe?s outstanding development and positioning in the space ?eld is based not only on Europe?s successful engineering and scienti?c capabilities and capacities, but also on the forceful political determination of all European actors to maintain and even further their engagement in the use of outer space. And it is this political determination which provides the focus for this ?Yearbook on Space Policy?. The Yearbook describes and analyses the contexts and contents of space policy. Its primary ?eld of investigation is Europe, but it also covers the whole range of global space activities and their in?uence on European endeavours.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Schrogl, Kai-Uwe

Mathieu, Charlotte

Peter, Nicolas

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Table of Contents;8
3;List of acronyms;16
4;PART 1 The Year in Space 2007/2008;25
4.1;European space activities in the global;26
4.1.1;1. Geopolitical trends;26
4.1.1.1;1.1. Global economic outlook;26
4.1.1.2;1.2. Political developments;27
4.1.1.2.1;1.2.1. Europe;27
4.1.1.2.2;1.2.2. The United States;28
4.1.1.2.3;1.2.3. Russia;28
4.1.1.2.4;1.2.4. Japan;29
4.1.1.2.5;1.2.5. China;29
4.1.1.2.6;1.2.6. India;30
4.1.1.3;1.3. International security;31
4.1.1.4;1.4. Major scientific achievements;32
4.1.1.5;1.5. Main science and technology indicators relevant for space activities;33
4.1.1.5.1;1.5.1. Science and technology inputs;33
4.1.1.5.2;1.5.2. Science and technology outputs;34
4.1.2;2. Worldwide space policies and strategies;35
4.1.2.1;2.1. The United Nations system;36
4.1.2.1.1;2.1.1. United Nations General Assembly Committees;37
4.1.2.1.2;2.1.2. Other UN bodies and organs monitoring outer space activities;38
4.1.2.2;2.2. The Group on Earth Observations;39
4.1.2.3;2.3. Regional cooperation in space activities;40
4.1.2.4;2.4. Europe;41
4.1.2.4.1;2.4.1. European Space Agency;42
4.1.2.4.2;2.4.2. European Union;42
4.1.2.4.3;2.4.3. Other European institutions;46
4.1.2.4.4;2.4.4. Eumetsat;47
4.1.2.4.5;2.4.5. National governments;47
4.1.2.4.5.1;2.4.5.1. France;47
4.1.2.4.5.2;2.4.5.2. Germany;48
4.1.2.4.5.3;2.4.5.3. Italy;48
4.1.2.4.5.4;2.4.5.4. The United Kingdom;49
4.1.2.5;2.5. The United States;50
4.1.2.6;2.6. Russia;51
4.1.2.7;2.7. Japan;51
4.1.2.8;2.8. China;52
4.1.2.9;2.9. India;53
4.1.2.10;2.10. Emerging space powers;54
4.1.3;3. Worldwide space budgets and revenues;56
4.1.3.1;3.1. Overview of institutional space budgets;56
4.1.3.2;3.2. Overview of commercial space markets;58
4.1.3.3;3.3. Evolution of the space industry;60
4.1.3.3.1;3.3.1. Industrial evolution in Europe;61
4.1.3.3.2;3.3.2. Industrial evolution in the United States;62
4.1.3.3.3;3.3.3. Industrial evolution in Russia;63
4.1.3.3.4;3.3.4. Industrial evolution in Japan;64
4.1.3.3.5;3.3.5. Industrial evolution in China;64
4.1.3.4;3.4. Industrial overview;64
4.1.3.4.1;3.4.1. Launch sector;65
4.1.3.4.2;3.4.2. Satellite manufacturing sector;67
4.1.3.4.3;3.4.3. Satellite operators sector;69
4.1.4;4. The security dimension;70
4.1.4.1;4.1. The global space military context;71
4.1.4.2;4.2. The European space military context;72
4.1.4.3;4.3. The United States;75
4.1.4.4;4.4. Russia;76
4.1.4.5;4.5. Japan;77
4.1.4.6;4.6. China;77
4.1.4.7;4.7. India;78
4.1.4.8;4.8. Other space actors;78
4.1.4.9;4.9. Threats to the space environment;79
4.2;Developments in space policies, programmes and technologies throughout the world and in Europe.;87
4.2.1;1. Space policies and programmes;87
4.2.1.1;1.1. Highlights in activities and programmes;87
4.2.1.2;1.2. Highlights in partnerships;88
4.2.2;2. Space transportation;92
4.2.2.1;2.1. Europe;93
4.2.2.2;2.2. United States;94
4.2.2.3;2.3. Russia;95
4.2.2.4;2.4. Japan;96
4.2.2.5;2.5. China;96
4.2.2.6;2.6. India;97
4.2.2.7;2.7. Emerging actors;97
4.2.2.8;2.8. Industrial comparison;98
4.2.3;3. Space science and exploration;103
4.2.3.1;3.1. Human spaceflights activities;104
4.2.3.2;3.2. Lunar exploration;106
4.2.3.3;3.3. Mars exploration;108
4.2.3.4;3.4. Saturn exploration;110
4.2.3.5;3.5. Venus exploration;110
4.2.3.6;3.6. Mercury exploration;111
4.2.3.7;3.7. Jupiter observation;111
4.2.3.8;3.8. Solar observation;111
4.2.3.9;3.9. Outer solar system space probes;112
4.2.3.10;3.10. International cooperation in space exploration;113
4.2.4;4. Satellite applications;114
4.2.4.1;4.1. Space-based communications;114
4.2.4.2;4.2. Space-based positioning, navigation and timing systems;119
4.2.4.3;4.3. Space-based Earth observation;124
4.2.5;5. Technology developments;127
4.2.5.1;5.1. Propulsion;127
4.2.5.2;5.2. Information technology;129
4.2.5.3;5.3. Spacecraft operations and design;129
4.2.5.4;5.4. Other technologies;130
4.2.5.5;5.5. Suborbital activities;130
4.2.5.6;5.6. Innovation policy;132
5;PART 2 Views and Insights;139
5.1;1. Space in the Treaty of Lisbon;140
5.1.1;1.1. Introduction;140
5.1.2;1.2. Current constitutional bases for the EU in space;140
5.1.3;1.3. Antecedents and context of the Lisbon Treaty;143
5.1.4;1.4. Analysis of sapec-related provisions in the Lisbon Treaty;144
5.2;2. Galileo and the issue of public funding;149
5.2.1;2.1. Galileo finally on track;149
5.2.1.1;2.1.1. Galileo under EU governance;149
5.2.1.1.1;2.1.1.1. Timeline from June 2007 to July 2008;150
5.2.1.1.2;2.1.1.2. The calls for tender;150
5.2.1.2;2.1.2. The impact on future European policies;151
5.2.1.3;2.1.3. Meanwhile at the ranch: the in-orbit validation process;153
5.2.2;2.2. A bigger issue: when should taxpayers pay for space?;153
5.2.2.1;2.2.1. Space needs public money;153
5.2.2.1.1;2.2.1.1. The case of satellite navigation;154
5.2.2.2;2.2.2. Why should governments pay for space? – Defining the National Interest;155
5.2.2.2.1;2.2.2.1. Exhibit A: The UK;156
5.2.2.2.2;2.2.2.2. Exhibit B: The U.S.;156
5.2.2.3;2.2.3. Galileo and the national interest;157
5.2.2.3.1;2.2.3.1. Galileo for security;157
5.2.2.3.2;2.2.3.2. Galileo for innovation;159
5.2.2.3.3;2.2.3.3. Galileo for prestige;159
5.3;3. Europe.s approach to Space Situational Awareness: A proposal;162
5.3.1;3.1. Introduction;162
5.3.2;3.2. A European Space Situational Awareness programme;163
5.3.3;3.3. SSA end-users and their requirements;164
5.3.3.1;3.3.1. Institutional end-users;164
5.3.3.2;3.3.2. Military end-users;165
5.3.3.3;3.3.3. Commercial end-users;166
5.3.3.4;3.3.4. Scientific end-users;166
5.3.4;3.4. Some existing models in the space domain for developing a suitable data-policy and governance model;167
5.3.4.1;3.4.1. Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES);167
5.3.4.2;3.4.2. Galileo;168
5.3.4.3;3.4.3. TerraSar-X;168
5.3.4.4;3.4.4. Graves;169
5.3.5;3.5. A possible European model for SSA;170
5.3.6;3.6. Conclusions;173
5.4;4. The European Union proposal for a Code of Conduct on Outer Space Activities;176
5.4.1;4.1. Good reasons to get active – Why the European Union drafts a Code of Conduct on Outer Space Activities;176
5.4.1.1;4.1.1. Treaty versus Code – The UN discussion process and the academic background;178
5.4.1.2;4.1.2. Process or outcome? – The European Union's objectives and its Member States' divergent interests;181
5.4.2;4.2. "A tightrope walk" – The European Union tackles the space between claim and reality;182
5.4.2.1;4.2.1. The contents of the EU draft CoC;183
5.4.2.1.1;4.2.1.1. General provisions;183
5.4.2.1.2;4.2.1.2. Co-operation mechanisms;183
5.4.3;4.3. A first appraisal of the CoC;184
5.5;5. International cooperation in space exploration: Lessons from the past and perspectives for the future;188
5.5.1;5.1. Introduction;188
5.5.2;5.2. The easy part: Robotic exploration;189
5.5.2.1;5.2.1. The fundamental importance of science as a driver of space exploration;189
5.5.2.2;5.2.2. The early steps in space cooperation;190
5.5.2.3;5.2.3. Basic space cooperation principles;191
5.5.3;5.3. Human spaceflight and its globalisation;192
5.5.3.1;5.3.1. Cold War competition in human spaceflight;192
5.5.3.2;5.3.2. The opening of the Space Shuttle programme to international cooperation;192
5.5.3.3;5.3.3. The de facto globalisation of human spaceflight;194
5.5.4;5.4. The special case of the International Space Station;195
5.5.4.1;5.4.1. The origin of the International Space Station programme;195
5.5.4.2;5.4.2. The original European human spaceflight strategy of the 1980s;195
5.5.4.3;5.4.3. A paradigm shift: Russia joins the International Space Station;196
5.5.4.4;5.4.4. The remarkable resilience of the International Space Station;198
5.5.4.5;5.4.5. The legal framework of the International Space Station as a model for the future;199
5.5.5;5.5. The Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) and the Global Exploration Strategy (GES);200
5.5.5.1;5.5.1. The VSE: A major space policy decision;200
5.5.5.2;5.5.2. A very significant step: the establishment of the Global Exploration Strategy;202
5.5.5.3;5.5.3. From principles to requirements in the GES Framework;204
5.5.6;5.6. What model for the future?;206
5.5.6.1;5.6.1. The limits of the GES Framework exercise;206
5.5.6.2;5.6.2. The case for an integrated framework;208
5.5.6.3;5.6.3. Could the ITER model be applied to long-termhuman space exploration?;208
5.6;6. Exploration – How science finds its way in Europe;212
5.6.1;6.1. Introduction;212
5.6.2;6.2. What is exploration?;213
5.6.3;6.3. Consulting the scientific community;214
5.6.4;6.4. Main recommendations;215
5.6.5;6.5. The role of humans;217
5.6.6;6.6. The international dimension;218
5.6.7;6.7. The next steps;218
5.7;7. The political dimension of Europe's new human spaceflight capabilities;220
5.7.1;7.1. Introduction;220
5.7.2;7.2. Columbus and the ATV in historical perspective;220
5.7.3;7.3. Costs and benefits of spaceflight – a framework for analysis;224
5.7.4;7.4. Looking backward – Political costs and Europe's involvement in the Space Station programme;226
5.7.5;7.5. Options for reducing political costs;227
5.7.6;7.6. Potential benefits of ATV evolution;230
5.7.7;7.7. Conclusion;231
5.8;8. Space technologies and the export control system in the Unites States: Prospects for meaningful reform;234
5.8.1;8.1. Executive summary;234
5.8.2;8.2. Other types of export controls in the United States;236
5.8.3;8.3. Cold War thinking vs. 21st century reality;237
5.8.4;8.4. Living with ITAR;239
5.8.4.1;8.4.1. Brief history;239
5.8.4.2;8.4.2. The system today;240
5.8.5;8.5. ITAR and the space sector;242
5.8.5.1;8.5.1. The current system as applied to space technologies;242
5.8.5.2;8.5.2. Export control laws and U.S. government space policy;243
5.8.5.3;8.5.3. Evidence of the impact of ITAR on the space industry;244
5.8.6;8.6. Current effort for reforms;246
5.8.6.1;8.6.1. A new bill to reform the administration of the arms export control and for other purposes;246
5.8.6.2;8.6.2. Reform of ITAR and the space industrial sector;247
5.9;9. Space for resources;250
5.9.1;9.1. Introduction;250
5.9.2;9.2. 'Space for Development': a long-standing and long-term policy;250
5.9.2.1;9.2.1. The well entrenched benefits of space;250
5.9.2.2;9.2.2. Major changes in the utilisation of space for resources;252
5.9.3;9.3. "GMES and Africa": a new step in the European space for resources policy;254
5.9.3.1;9.3.1. The need to make the benefits of space technology more universal;254
5.9.3.2;9.3.2. The political significance of space for resources;255
5.9.4;9.4. Implications for the future;256
5.9.4.1;9.4.1. The geopolitical significance of space for resources;256
5.9.4.2;9.4.2. The implications of increasing competition;257
5.9.5;9.5. Conclusion;259
5.10;10. The United Nations and outer space: Celebrating 50 years of space achievements;261
5.10.1;10.1. Introduction;261
5.10.2;10.2. The establishment of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space;262
5.10.3;10.3. The UNISPACE Conferences and capacity building in space technology and applications;266
5.10.4;10.4. The use of space technology and applications in the United Nations system;269
5.10.5;10.5. The United Nations and space law: recent trends;270
5.10.6;10.6. Conclusions;273
6;PART 3 Facts and Figures;277
6.1;1. Chronology: July 2007-June 2008;278
6.1.1;1.1. Access to space;278
6.1.2;1.2. Space science and exploration;282
6.1.3;1.3. Applications;284
6.1.4;1.4. Policy and international cooperation;287
6.2;2. Country profiles;289
6.2.1;AUSTRIA;289
6.2.2;BELGIUM;289
6.2.3;CZECH REPUBLIC;290
6.2.4;DENMARK;290
6.2.5;FINLAND;291
6.2.6;FRANCE;291
6.2.7;GERMANY;292
6.2.8;GREECE;292
6.2.9;HUNGARY;293
6.2.10;IRELAND;293
6.2.11;ITALY;294
6.2.12;LUXEMBOURG;294
6.2.13;NETHERLANDS;295
6.2.14;NORWAY;295
6.2.15;POLAND;296
6.2.16;PORTUGAL;296
6.2.17;ROMANIA;297
6.2.18;SPAIN;297
6.2.19;SWEDEN;298
6.2.20;SWITZERLAND;298
6.2.21;UNITED KINGDOM;299
6.2.22;European Space Agency;300
6.2.23;European Commission;301
6.2.24;Eumetsat;302
6.2.25;CANADA;303
6.2.26;CHINA;304
6.2.27;INDIA;305
6.2.28;JAPAN;306
6.2.29;RUSSIA;307
6.2.30;UKRAINE;308
6.2.31;USA;309
6.3;3. Bibliography of space policy publications. July 2007-June 2008;311
6.3.1;3.1. Monographs;311
6.3.2;3.2. Articles;313
7;List of figures and tables;317
7.1;Figures;317
7.1.1;Part 1: The Year in Space 2007/2008;317
7.1.2;Part 2: Views and Insights;317
7.2;Tables;319
7.2.1;Part 1: The Year in Space 2007/2008;319
7.2.2;Part 2: Views and Insights;319
8;About the Authors;320
9;Index;328