Shi NanoScience in Biomedicine

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-540-49661-8
Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 729 Seiten

NanoScience in Biomedicine provides up-to-date information in the frontier fields of nano biomedicine focusing on basic concepts and recent developments in many topical areas including particular nanomaterials synthesis, field emission of carbon nanotubes, flexible dye-sensitized nano-porous films, magnetic nanofluids, and intrinsically electroconducting nanoparticles. Novel methods of synthesizing nanoscale biomaterials and their applications in biomedicine are also included such as nano-sized materials for drug delivery, bioactive molecules for regenerative medicine, nanoscale mechanisms for assembly of biomaterials, and nanostructured materials constructed from polypeptides. This book is organized in three parts: Part I introduces most recent developments in all aspects of design, synthesis, properties, and applications of nanoscale biomaterials. Part II focuses on novel nanotechnologies in biomedicine. Part III includes some of the new developments of nanomaterials' synthesis and recent studies on nanostructure-properties relationships. The book comprehensively addresses the most critical issues in a tutorial manner so that technical non-specialists and students in both biomedical sciences and engineering will be able to benefit. All chapters are contributed by internationally recognized scholars. Dr. Donglu Shi is a professor at the Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, University of Cincinnati, USA.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Shi, Donglu

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
2;Table of Contents;8
3;1 Stem Cells and Nanostructured Materials;20
3.1;1.1 Introduction;20
3.2;1.2 Interaction of Stem Cells with Nanotopographic Substrates;22
3.2.1;1.2.1 Cell Shape and the Cytoskeleton;23
3.2.2;1.2.2 Morphology, Attachment and Proliferation;24
3.2.2.1;1.2.2.1 Nanosurfaces;24
3.2.2.2;1.2.2.2 Nanofibers;25
3.2.3;1.2.3 Differentiation;25
3.2.3.1;1.2.3.1 Nanosurfaces;25
3.2.3.2;1.2.3.2 Nanofibers;26
3.2.4;1.2.4 Self-Assembling Peptide Nanofibers;27
3.2.5;1.2.5 Summary;27
3.3;1.3 Stem Cell Interactions with Nanoparticles;28
3.3.1;1.3.1 Nanoparticles as Contrast Agents;29
3.3.1.1;1.3.1.1 Super Paramagnetic Nanoparticles;29
3.3.1.2;1.3.1.2 Quantum Dots;29
3.3.1.3;1.3.1.3 Nanoshells;29
3.3.2;1.3.2 Nanoparticles as Vehicles;29
3.3.2.1;1.3.2.1 Silica Nanoparticles;29
3.3.2.2;1.3.2.2 Polymer Nanoparticles;30
3.3.3;1.3.3 Effect of Internalized Nanoparticles;30
3.3.3.1;1.3.3.1 Toxicity;30
3.3.3.2;1.3.3.2 Differentiation;31
3.3.3.3;1.3.3.3 Cell Internalization of Nanoparticles and Cell Tracking;31
3.3.3.3.1;1. Ex Vivo Stem Cell Tracking;32
3.3.3.3.2;2. In Vivo Stem Cell Tracking;32
3.3.3.3.3;3. Removal and Digestion of Nanoparticle in In Vivo Tracking;34
3.3.3.3.4;4. Possible Problems facing In Vivo MR Tracking;34
3.3.3.4;1.3.3.4 Gene Therepy;35
3.3.3.5;1.3.3.5 Cancer Therepy;35
3.3.4;1.3.4 Summary;36
3.4;1.4 Conclusions;36
3.5;Acknowledgements;37
3.6;References;37
4;2 Biomedical Polymer Nanofibers for Emerging Technology;40
4.1;2.1 Introduction;40
4.2;2.2 Electrospinning Technology-History, Principle, Parameter;42
4.3;2.3 Functionalization of Nanofibers;44
4.3.1;2.3.1 Bulk Modification;44
4.3.2;2.3.2 Surface Modification;46
4.4;2.4 Biomedical Applications;48
4.4.1;2.4.1 Tissue-Engineered Scaffolds;48
4.4.1.1;2.4.1.1 Skin;48
4.4.1.2;2.4.1.2 Cartilage;49
4.4.1.3;2.4.1.3 Bone;51
4.4.1.4;2.4.1.4 Blood Vessel;52
4.4.2;2.4.2 Wound Dressing;54
4.4.3;2.4.3 Biomedical Devices and Implants;55
4.4.4;2.4.4 Drug Delivery System;56
4.4.5;2.4.5 Other Applications;57
4.5;2.5 Concluding Remark;58
4.6;Acknowledgement;58
4.7;References;59
5;3 Nanoscale Mechanisms for Assembly of Biomaterials;62
5.1;3.1 Introduction;62
5.2;3.2 Non-Covalent Intermolecular Interaction;64
5.2.1;3.2.1 Electrostatic Interaction;65
5.2.1.1;3.2.1.1 Ion-Ion Interaction;66
5.2.1.2;3.2.1.2 Ion-Dipole Interaction;66
5.2.1.3;3.2.1.3 Ion-Induced Dipole Interaction;67
5.2.1.4;3.2.1.4 Dipole-Dipole Interaction;67
5.2.1.5;3.2.1.5 Dipole-Induced Dipole Interaction;68
5.2.1.6;3.2.1.6 Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole Interaction;68
5.2.2;3.2.2 Hydrogen Bonding;69
5.2.3;3.2.3 Hydrophobic Interactions;69
5.2.4;3.2.4 Non-Covalent Interactions in Biological Systems;70
5.2.5;3.2.5 Summary;71
5.3;3.3 Approaches for Bioinspired Nanoscale Assembly of Biomaterials;71
5.3.1;3.3.1 Supramolecular Assembly Based Primarily on Ion-Ion Interactions;72
5.3.2;3.3.2 Assembly of Amphiphilic Biomaterials;74
5.3.3;3.3.3 Biomimetic Supramolecular Assembly Based on Hydrogen Bonding;76
5.3.4;3.3.4 Biomimetic Assembly Based on Affinity-Based Interactions;77
5.3.5;3.3.5 Summary;78
5.4;3.4 Development of Biomaterials That Mimic The Natural ECM;78
5.4.1;3.4.1 Introduction;78
5.4.2;3.4.2 Non-Covalent Interactions in Natural Extracellular Matrices;79
5.4.3;3.4.3 Biomaterials That Mimic ECM Structures and Properties;80
5.4.3.1;3.4.3.1 Non-Covalent Assembly of Structural 3-D Hydrogel Matrices for Cell Culture;81
5.4.3.2;3.4.3.2 Substrates and Scaffolds That Interact Specifically and Non-Covalently with Cells;82
5.4.3.3;3.4.3.3 Dynamic Matrices That Dissemble in Response to Cell Activity;84
5.4.3.4;3.4.3.4 Matrices That Interact with Growth Factors via Non-Covalent Interactions;85
5.4.3.4.1;1. Heparin-based sequestering;85
5.4.3.4.2;2. Gelatin-based sequestering;87
5.4.3.4.3;3. Specific sequestering interactions for growth factor delivery;87
5.5;3.5 Concluding remarks;89
5.6;Acknowledgements;90
5.7;References;90
6;4 Fabrication and Assembly of Nanomaterials and Nanostructures for Biological Detections;95
6.1;4.1 Introduction;95
6.2;4.2 Semiconductor Quantum Dots and Metal Nanoparticles;96
6.2.1;4.2.1 Principles of Semiconductor QDs and Metal Nanoparticle Biosensors;96
6.2.2;4.2.2 Fabrication of semiconductor QDs and metal nanoparticles for biosensors;99
6.2.3;4.2.3 Assembly of QD and Metal Nanoparticle Arrays for Biosensor Applications;100
6.3;4.3 Field Effect Sensors Based on Nanowires and Nanotubes;101
6.3.1;4.3.1 Detection Principles of 1-D Nanowire and Nanotube-Based Biosensors;101
6.3.2;4.3.2 Fabrication of 1-D Nanowires and Nanotubes;102
6.3.3;4.3.3 Assembly of Ordered Nanowire and Nanotube Arrays;104
6.3.4;4.3.4 Horizontally-Aligned Growth of Single-Walled Nanotubes (SWNTs) on Substrates;105
6.4;4.4 Micro-cantilever sensors;108
6.4.1;4.4.1 Detection Principle of Micro-Cantilever Sensors;108
6.4.2;4.4.2 Fabrication of the array of micro-cantilever sensors;109
6.5;4.5 Summary;110
6.6;References;111
7;5 Nanostructured Materials Constructed from Polypeptides;115
7.1;5.1 Introduction;115
7.2;5.2 Amino Acids and Their Derivatives: Building Blocks for Nanostructured Materials;116
7.2.1;5.2.1 Canonical Amino Acids;116
7.2.2;5.2.2 Non-canonical Amino Acids;118
7.2.3;5.2.3 Peptidomimetics and Peptide Derivatives;119
7.3;5.3 Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Structures in Nanomaterials;121
7.3.1;5.3.1 ß-Sheet Fibrils;121
7.3.2;5.3.2 a-Helices and Coiled Coils;126
7.4;5.4 Materials Properties Arising from Peptide Construction;133
7.4.1;5.4.1 Stimulus-Responsiveness;133
7.4.2;5.4.2 Multifunctionality and Modularity;135
7.5;5.5 Technological Applications of Nanoscale Peptide Materials;138
7.5.1;5.5.1 Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine;138
7.5.2;5.5.2 Antimicrobials;140
7.5.3;5.5.3 Controlled Drug Release;140
7.5.4;5.5.4 Nanoscale Electronics;141
7.6;5.6 Concluding Remarks;141
7.7;References;142
8;6 Photoluminescent Carbon Nanomaterials: Properties and Potential Applications;147
8.1;6.1 Introduction;147
8.2;6.2 Photoluminescent Carbon Particles-Carbon Quantum Dots;149
8.3;6.3 Photoluminescent Carbon Nanotubes;154
8.3.1;6.3.1 A Consequence of Functionalization;155
8.3.2;6.3.2 Photoluminescence Features and Properties;156
8.3.2.1;6.3.2.1 Effect of Dispersion;159
8.3.2.2;6.3.2.2 Effect on Raman;161
8.3.3;6.3.3 Defect-Derived vs Band-Gap Emissions;162
8.4;6.4 Dots vs Tubes—Luminescence Polarization;163
8.5;6.5 Potential Applications;166
8.6;Acknowledgement;169
8.7;References;169
9;7 Microwave-assisted Synthesis and Processing of Biomaterials;173
9.1;7.1 Introduction;173
9.2;7.2 Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite;175
9.2.1;7.2.1 Synthesis in Aqueous Solution;176
9.2.2;7.2.2 Microwave-Hydrothermal Synthesis;181
9.2.3;7.2.3 Synthesis of HA by the Conversion of Precursor Monetite Prepared in Mixed Solvents;182
9.2.4;7.2.4 Prepration of HA Thin Film;184
9.2.5;7.2.5 Synthesis by Solid State Reaction;185
9.3;7.3 Synthesis of ß-Tricalcium Phosphate (ß-Ca3(PO4)2);185
9.4;7.4 Synthesis of Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3);186
9.5;7.5 Synthesis of Composite Biomaterials;190
9.6;7.6 Synthesis of Functionally Graded Bioactive Materials;192
9.7;7.7 Microwave Sintering of Biomaterials;193
9.8;References;195
10;8 Characterizing Biointerfaces and Biosurfaces in Biomaterials Design;197
10.1;8.1 Introduction;197
10.2;8.2 Characterization of Biointerfaces;200
10.2.1;8.2.1 Surface and Interface Analysis Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy;200
10.2.2;8.2.2 Surface and Interface Analysis Using Atomic Force Microscopy;202
10.2.2.1;8.2.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy for Surface Imaging;203
10.2.2.2;8.2.2.2 Atomic Force Microscopy in Study of Cellular Adhesion;204
10.2.2.3;8.2.2.3 Evaluating Molecular Mechanics Using AFM;205
10.2.3;8.2.3 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy;206
10.2.4;8.2.4 Contact Angle;207
10.2.5;8.2.5 Time-of-Flight Secondary Ions Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS);208
10.3;8.3 Nano-Structuring Surfaces;209
10.3.1;8.3.1 Nanotopology;210
10.3.2;8.3.2 Nanopatterning Surfaces with Biomolecules;211
10.4;8.4 Conclusions;214
10.5;References;215
11;9 Carbon Nanotubes for Electrochemical and Electronic Biosensing Applications;224
11.1;9.1 Introduction;224
11.2;9.2 Design Principles of CNT-Based Biosensors;225
11.2.1;9.2.1 CNTs as Modifiers of Electrode Surfaces;225
11.2.1.1;9.2.1.1 Non-Oriented Modification;226
11.2.1.2;9.2.1.2 Oriented Modification;226
11.2.2;9.2.2 CNT-Based Composite Electrodes;228
11.2.3;9.2.3 Nanoparticles Decorated CNT-Based Electrodes;229
11.2.4;9.2.4 CNTs as Key Sensing Elements;230
11.2.5;9.2.5 CNT-Based Biosensors with Immobilized Biological Molecules;231
11.2.5.1;9.2.5.1 Direct Adsorption;233
11.2.5.2;9.2.5.2 Entrapment;234
11.2.5.3;9.2.5.3 Covalent Attachment;236
11.3;9.3 Electrochemical Detection of Biomolecules;237
11.3.1;9.3.1 Assessment Criteria of Sensors;243
11.3.2;9.3.2 Electrochemical Biosensors;243
11.3.2.1;9.3.2.1 Glucose;243
11.3.2.2;9.3.2.2 Cholesterol;245
11.3.2.3;9.3.2.3 Choline;245
11.3.2.4;9.3.2.4 L-Cysteine;245
11.3.2.5;9.3.2.5 Cytochrome c;245
11.3.2.6;9.3.2.6 Dopamine;246
11.3.2.7;9.3.2.7 Folic acid;246
11.3.2.8;9.3.2.8 Glutathione;247
11.3.2.9;9.3.2.9 Indole-3-acetic acid;247
11.3.2.10;9.3.2.10 Lactate;248
11.3.2.11;9.3.2.11 Lincomycin;248
11.3.2.12;9.3.2.12 Morphine;248
11.3.2.13;9.3.2.13 NADH;248
11.3.2.14;9.3.2.14 Nitric oxide;249
11.3.2.15;9.3.2.15 Organophosphate compounds;249
11.3.2.16;9.3.2.16 Phenolic compounds;250
11.3.2.17;9.3.2.17 Procaine;250
11.3.2.18;9.3.2.18 Putrescine;250
11.3.2.19;9.3.2.19 Theophyllin;251
11.3.2.20;9.3.2.20 Quercetin;251
11.3.2.21;9.3.2.21 Rutin;251
11.3.2.22;9.3.2.22 Thiocholine;251
11.3.2.23;9.3.2.23 DNA;252
11.3.2.24;9.3.2.24 Others;254
11.4;9.4 Field-Effect Transistors Based on SWNTs;255
11.4.1;9.4.1 Protein Recognition;256
11.4.2;9.4.2 DNA Hybridization;258
11.4.3;9.4.3 Enzymatic Study;259
11.4.4;9.4.4 Protein Adsorption;259
11.4.5;9.4.5 Others;260
11.5;9.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects;260
11.6;Acknowledgement;261
11.7;Reference;261
12;10 Heparin-Conjugated Nanointerfaces for Biomedical Applications;266
12.1;10.1 Introduction;266
12.2;10.2 Heparin-Bound Biodegradable Polymers for Biocompatible Interfaces;268
12.2.1;10.2.1 Heparin-Conjugated Polylactide (PLA-Hep);268
12.2.1.1;10.2.1.1 Synthesis of PLA-Hep;268
12.2.1.2;10.2.1.2 Blood Compatibility Test;270
12.2.2;10.2.2 Heparin-Conjugated Star-Shaped PLA (sPLA-Hep);273
12.2.2.1;10.2.2.1 Synthesis of sPLA-Hep;273
12.2.2.2;10.2.2.2 Blood Compatibility Test;275
12.2.2.3;10.2.2.3 In Vitro Assay for Cell Compatibility;278
12.2.2.3.1;1. In vitro Cell culture;278
12.2.2.3.2;2. Cell growth assay (Actin staining);278
12.3;10.3 Heparin-Conjugated Polymeric Micelles;279
12.3.1;10.3.1 Synthesis of Tetronic®-PCL-Heparin Conjugate;279
12.3.2;10.3.2 Preparation of bFGF Loaded Polymeric Micelle;281
12.3.3;10.3.3 bFGF Release Study;283
12.3.4;10.3.4 Bioactivity of the Released bFGF;285
12.4;10.4 Heparin-Immobilized Small Intestinal Submucosa (SIS);285
12.4.1;10.4.1 Preparation of Heparin-Immobilized SIS;285
12.4.2;10.4.2 Blood Compatibility Test;286
12.4.3;10.4.3 In Vitro Fibroblast Attachment;287
12.4.4;10.4.4 In Vivo Calcification;288
12.4.5;10.5 Conclusions;289
12.5;References;289
13;11 Inorganic Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications;291
13.1;11.1 Introduction;291
13.2;11.2 Unguided Drug Delivery Systems;293
13.2.1;11.2.1 Chemical Synthesis of Ceramic Nanomaterials;294
13.2.2;11.2.2 Functionalization of Ceramic Nanomaterials;295
13.3;11.3 Magnetically-Guided Drug Delivery Systems;296
13.3.1;11.3.1 Magnetic Guiding;296
13.3.2;11.3.2 Chemical Synthesis and Properties of Magnetic Nanostructures;296
13.3.3;11.3.3 Functionalization of Magnetic Nanoparticles;298
13.3.4;11.3.4 Biocompatibility of Magnetic Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery;299
13.4;11.4 Optically-Triggered Drug Delivery Systems;299
13.4.1;11.4.1 Chemical Synthesis and Properties of NIR-Sensitive Nanoparticles;300
13.4.2;11.4.2 Functionalization of NIR-Sensitive Nanoparticles;301
13.4.3;11.4.3 Biocompatibility of NIR-Sensitive Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery;301
13.5;11.5 Summary;303
13.6;References;303
14;12 Nano Metal Particles for Biomedical Applications;309
14.1;12.1 NMPs as Contrast Agents for Bioimaging;309
14.2;12.2 Fluorescing NMPs;311
14.3;12.3 NMPs with High Plamon Field for Fluorescence Manipulation;312
14.3.1;12.3.1 NMPs Used for Fluorescence Quenching;313
14.3.2;12.3.2 NMP for Fluorescence Enhancement in Biosensing;314
14.3.2.1;1. Metal Type;317
14.3.2.2;2. Particle Size;318
14.3.2.3;3. Distance between a Fluorophore and an NMP;318
14.3.2.4;4. Quantum Yield of Fluorophore;319
14.3.3;12.3.3 NMP for Fluorescence Enhancement in Bioimaging;320
14.4;12.4 Magnetic NMPs for Bioseparation;321
14.5;12.5 Magnetic NMPs for Biosensing;322
14.6;12.6 Magnetic NMPs for Cancer Hyperthermia;324
14.7;12.7 Multi-Functional NMPs;327
14.8;12.8 Conclusions;329
14.9;Acknowledgements;329
14.10;References;329
15;13 Micro- and Nanoscale Technologies in High- Throughput Biomedical Experimentation;333
15.1;13.1 Introduction;334
15.2;13.2 Microarray Technologies;335
15.2.1;13.2.1 Evolution of Microarrays;336
15.2.2;13.2.2 Microarray Fabrication and Applications;337
15.2.3;13.2.3 DNA and cDNA Microarrays;340
15.2.4;13.2.4 Protein and Antibody-Based Microarrays;342
15.2.5;13.2.5 Cell-Based Microarrays;344
15.2.6;13.2.6 Other Microarrays and Microarray-Based Diagnostics;345
15.3;13.3 Micro- and Nanoengineering for Biomedical Experimentation;346
15.4;13.4 Microfluidics;348
15.5;13.5 Other Micro- and Nanoscale Technologies for Biological and Chemical Detection;352
15.6;13.6 Conclusions;355
15.7;Acknowledgements;355
15.8;References;356
16;14 Delivery System of Bioactive Molecules for Regenerative Medicine;366
16.1;14.1 Introduction;366
16.2;14.2 Delivery Systems of Bioactive Molecules;367
16.2.1;14.2.1 Importance of Bioactive Molecules Release System for the Regenerative Medicine;367
16.2.2;14.2.2 Scaffold System;372
16.2.3;14.2.3 Injectable Hydrogel System;375
16.2.4;14.2.4 Microspheres System;376
16.2.5;14.2.5 Nanofiber Scaffold System;377
16.3;14.3 Differentiation of Adult Stem Cells Using Delivery System of Bioactive Molecules;378
16.3.1;14.3.1 Osteoegensis of MSC;378
16.3.2;14.3.2 Chondrogenesis of MSCs;379
16.4;14.4 Repair of Diaphyseal Long Bone Defect with Calcitriol Released Delivery Vehicle and MSCs;380
16.5;14.5 Future Directions;383
16.6;14.6 Conclusion;384
16.7;Acknowledgements;384
16.8;References;384
17;15 Modification of Nano-sized Materials for Drug Delivery;388
17.1;15.1 Introduction;388
17.2;15.2 Available Methods to Modify Nano-Sized Materials for Drug Delivery;390
17.2.1;15.2.1 Surface Modification;390
17.2.1.1;15.2.1.1 Physical Modification;390
17.2.1.2;15.2.1.2 Chemical Modification;391
17.2.1.2.1;1. Carbodiimide and Glutaraaldehyde Coupling Chemistry;392
17.2.1.2.2;2. PEG Chemistry;392
17.2.1.3;15.2.1.3 Bio-Specific Modification;393
17.2.2;15.2.2 Shell-Core Modification;393
17.2.3;15.2.3 Bulk Modifications;393
17.3;15.3 Applications for Drug Delivery of Modified Nano Sized Biomaterials;394
17.3.1;15.3.1 Long Circulating Delivery;394
17.3.1.1;15.3.1.1 Stealth Nanoparticles Surface Adsorped Amphipathic Multiblock Copolymers;395
17.3.1.2;15.3.1.2 Stealth Nanoparticles Surface Chemically Grafting of PEG Chains and Its Derivatives;396
17.3.2;15.3.2 Targeting Delivery;397
17.3.2.1;15.3.2.1 Brain Targeting and Blood-Brain Barrier;397
17.3.2.1.1;1. Coated Nanoparticles;398
17.3.2.1.2;2. PEGylated Nanoparticles;399
17.3.2.2;15.3.2.2 Cell Targeting and Tumor Delivery of Drugs;400
17.3.3;15.3.3 New Therapy and Drug Carriers;401
17.4;15.4 Conclusions;403
17.5;Acknowledgements;403
17.6;References;403
18;16 Polymeric Nano Micelles as a Drug Carrier;407
18.1;16.1 Introduction;407
18.2;16.2 Self-Assembly and Micellization of Amphiphilic Block Copolymers;408
18.2.1;16.2.1 Amphiphilic Block Copolymers;408
18.2.2;16.2.2 Micellization of Amphiphilic Block Copolymers;409
18.2.3;16.2.3 Polymeric Micelle Shape;410
18.2.4;16.2.4 Characterization of Polymeric Micelle Size;411
18.2.5;16.2.5 CMC Determination of Polymeric Micelles;412
18.3;16.3 Drug Loaded Polymeric Micelles;414
18.3.1;16.3.1 Drug Incorporation in Polymeric Micelles;414
18.3.2;16.3.2 Drug Solubilization Capacity of the Polymeric Micelles;415
18.3.3;16.3.3 Drug Partitioning in Polymeric Micelles;415
18.3.4;16.3.4 Drug Release from Polymeric Micelles;416
18.4;16.4 Biological Applications of Polymeric Micelles;417
18.4.1;16.4.1 Biodistribution;417
18.4.2;16.4.2 Accumulation in Target Solid Tumors;418
18.5;16.5 Conclusions and Outlook;418
18.6;References;419
19;17 DNA Nanotechnology;424
19.1;17.1 Introduction;424
19.2;17.2 Basic Features of DNA;425
19.3;17.3 Self-Assembly of DNA Aanostructures;426
19.3.1;17.3.1 Basic Concepts;426
19.3.2;17.3.2 Two-Dimensional DNA Array Structures;427
19.3.2.1;17.3.2.1 DNA Lattice Structures;427
19.3.2.2;17.3.2.2 DNA Origami Structures;428
19.3.2.3;17.3.2.3 DNA Nanotube Structures;430
19.3.3;17.3.3 Three-Dimensional DNA Nanostructures;432
19.4;17.4 Self-Assembly Properties of DNA Nanostructures;433
19.4.1;17.4.1 DNA Templated Self-Assembly of Biological Molecules;434
19.4.1.1;17.4.1.1 DNA Cages for Trapping and Crystallization of Biological Molecules;434
19.4.1.2;17.4.1.2 DNA Scaffolds for Protein Arrays;434
19.4.2;17.4.2 DNA-Templated Self-Assembly of Nanoscale Devices;438
19.5;17.5 Application of DNA-Based Nanotechnology;438
19.6;17.6 Conclusions and Outlook;442
19.7;References;443
20;18 Nanoscale Bioactive Surfaces and Endosseous Implantology;447
20.1;18.1 Introduction;447
20.2;18.2 Peri-implant Endosseous Healing and Osseointegration;448
20.2.1;18.2.1 Peri-Implant Endosseous Healing;448
20.2.2;18.2.2 Effect of Implant Surface Characteristics on Osseointegration;450
20.2.3;18.2.3 Potential Advantage of Nanoscale Surfaces;451
20.3;18.3 Nanoscale Bioactive Surfaces;453
20.3.1;18.3.1 Nanoscale Textured Surface;453
20.3.2;18.3.2 Nanoscale Biological Molecules;458
20.3.3;18.3.3 Nanoscale Bioactive Calcium Phosphate Coating;459
20.4;18.4 Summary;463
20.5;Acknowledgements;463
20.6;References;463
21;19 Carbon Nanotube Smart Materials for Biology and Medicine;470
21.1;19.1 Introduction;470
21.2;19.2 Carbon Nanotube Array Synthesis;472
21.2.1;19.2.1 Array Synthesis;472
21.2.2;19.2.2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotube Towers;473
21.2.3;19.2.3 CNT Array Nanoskin and Nanostrands;474
21.3;19.3 Properties of Carbon Nanotube Arrays;476
21.3.1;19.3.1 Hydrophobic Property;476
21.3.2;19.3.2 Electrowetting Property;477
21.3.3;19.3.3 Capillarity Property;478
21.3.4;19.3.4 Nanotube Array Actuator;479
21.4;19.4 Potential Applications of Nanotube Arrays In Biology and Medicine;482
21.4.1;19.4.1 Electronic Biosensors;483
21.4.2;19.4.2 Nanotube Electrodes for Biovoltage and Chemical Sensing;486
21.4.3;19.4.3 Carbon Nanotube Sensor Film for Environmental Monitoring;487
21.4.4;19.4.4 Nanocomposite Materials for Biological Applications;488
21.4.4.1;19.4.4.1 Tailored Composites Using Carbon Nanotube Thread;489
21.4.4.2;19.4.4.2 Smart Elastomer;490
21.4.5;19.4.5 In-Body Biosensors: Optimistic Hopes and Wildest Outlook;491
21.4.5.1;19.4.5.1 Prior Art;492
21.4.5.2;19.4.5.2 Sensor Initial Design;492
21.4.6;19.4.6 Investigating Neuronal Activity and Function Using Nanotubes;494
21.4.6.1;19.4.6.1 Goals of Neuron Research;495
21.4.6.2;19.4.6.2 Synthesis and Fabrication of Carbon Nanotube Array Electrodes;496
21.4.6.3;19.4.6.3 Culturing Cells on Nanotubes;496
21.4.6.4;19.4.6.4 Signal Analysis of a Neural Network;497
21.4.7;19.5 Conclusions;499
21.4.8;Acknowledgement;499
21.4.9;References;499
22;20 Microscopic Modeling of Phonon Modes in Semiconductor Nanocrystals;504
22.1;20.1 Introduction;504
22.2;20.2 Theory;507
22.2.1;20.2.1 The Valence Force Field Model;507
22.2.2;20.2.2 Application of Group Theory to the Study of Nanocrystals;509
22.2.3;20.2.3 The Bond Charge Approximation;515
22.2.4;20.2.4 Lamb Modes;517
22.2.4.1;1. Displacements of the Spheroidal l = 0 mode;520
22.2.4.2;2. Displacements of Torsional l = 1 Modes;520
22.3;20.3 Results and Discussion;520
22.3.1;20.3.1 Phonon Density of States for Nanocrystals;520
22.3.2;20.3.2 Raman Intensities;523
22.3.3;20.3.3 Size Effects on the Highest Phonon Frequencies of Si;524
22.3.4;20.3.4 Size Effects on the Lowest Frequencies Phonon for Si;527
22.3.5;20.3.5 Folding of Acoustic Phonons;528
22.3.6;20.3.6 Size Effects on Si Raman Peaks;529
22.3.7;20.3.7 Size Effects on Mode Mixing;530
22.3.8;20.3.8 Size Effects on the Intensities of Ge Raman Peaks;530
22.3.9;20.3.9 Size Effects on the Highest Raman Frequencies for Ge with Fixed or Free Surfaces;532
22.3.10;20.3.10 Existence of Interface Modes for Nanocrystals with Fixed Surfaces;534
22.4;20.4 Correspondence between the Microscopic and Macroscopic Active Raman Modes;535
22.4.1;20.4.1 Projection of the Lamb Modes;535
22.4.2;20.4.2 Group Theory Prediction of the Raman Intensities of the Lamb Modes;537
22.4.3;20.4.3 Identifying Lamb Modes within the VFFM-Determined Modes;537
22.4.4;20.4.4 The Radial Distribution Function of Ge Nanocrystals;542
22.4.5;20.4.5 Raman Intensities for Ge NC and Lamb modes;542
22.5;20.5 Conclusions;546
22.6;Acknowledgements;547
22.7;Appendices;547
22.7.1;A.1 The Irreducible Matrices of the Td Group Used in Our Calculations are as Follows;547
22.7.2;A.2 Displacements for the l = 1 Spheroidal Lamb Modes;548
22.7.3;A.3 Displacements for l = 2 Spheroidal Lamb Modes;549
22.7.4;A.4 Displacements for the l = 2 Torsional Lamb Modes;551
22.7.5;A.5 Displacements for the l = 3 Torsional Lamb Modes;552
22.7.6;A.6 Displacements for the l = 4 Torsional Lamb Modes;553
22.8;References;554
23;21 Fracture Processes in Advanced Nanocrystalline and Nanocomposite Materials;556
23.1;21.1 Introduction;556
23.2;21.2 Specific Structural Features and Plastic Deformation Behavior of Nanomaterials;557
23.3;21.3 Brittle and Ductile Fracture Processes in Nanomaterials;562
23.4;21.4 Nucleation of Nanocracks at Grain Boundaries and Their Triple Junctions;566
23.5;21.5 Intergranular Brittle Fracture Through Nucleation and Convergence of Nanocracks in Nanomaterials;574
23.6;21.6 Crack Growth in Nanomaterials. Toughening Mechanisms;577
23.7;21.7 Concluding Remarks;582
23.8;Acknowledgements;583
23.9;References;583
24;22 Synthesis, Properties and Application of Conducting PPY Nanoparticles;587
24.1;22.1 Introduction;588
24.1.1;22.1.1 Synthesis of PPY Nanoparticles;588
24.1.1.1;22.1.1.1 Microemulsion Polymerization;588
24.1.1.2;22.1.1.2 Dispersion Polymerization;590
24.1.2;22.1.2 Properties and Application of PPY Nanoparticles;592
24.2;22.2 Experimental;599
24.2.1;22.2.1 Materials;599
24.2.2;22.2.2 Polymerization;599
24.2.3;22.2.3 Characterization;599
24.3;22.3 Results and Discussion;600
24.3.1;22.3.1 The Effect of Polymerization Temperature on the Yield of the Nanoparticles;600
24.3.2;22.3.2 Size and Its Distribution of the PY/SD Copolymer Nanoparticles;601
24.3.3;22.3.3 Morphology of the PY/SD Copolymer Nanoparticles;602
24.3.4;22.3.4 Mechanism of the Formation and Self-Stabilization of the Nanoparticles;603
24.3.5;22.3.5 Bulk Electrical Conductivity;603
24.4;22.4 Conclusions;603
24.5;Acknowledgements;604
24.6;References;604
25;23 Field Emission of Carbon Nanotubes;607
25.1;23.1 Introduction;607
25.2;23.2 Field Emission;608
25.3;23.3 Carbon Nanotube Growth Technologies;611
25.4;23.4 Characterization of Field Emission From CNTs;618
25.4.1;23.4.1 Effect of Structure on Field Emission;619
25.4.2;23.4.2 Effect of Length and Space;620
25.4.3;23.4.3 Method of field emission enhancement;625
25.4.4;23.4.4 Gated Field-Emission Arrays with Carbon Nanotubes;629
25.5;23.5 Summary;633
25.6;Acknowledgement;633
25.7;References;633
26;24 Flexible Dye-Sensitized Nano-Porous Films Solar Cells;637
26.1;24.1 Introduction;637
26.2;24.2 Flexible DSSCs and Low Temperature Preparation;641
26.3;24.3 Electron Transport and Back Reaction at the TiO2/ Electrolyte Interface;648
26.3.1;24.3.1 Factors that Determine Efficiency;648
26.3.2;24.3.2 Techniques for Measuring Electron Transport and Back Reaction;650
26.3.3;24.3.3 Results Obtained with Low-Temperature Films;653
26.3.4;24.3.4 Recent Developments and Outlook;657
26.4;24.4 Interfacial Electron Transfer, Charge Separation and Recombination;658
26.4.1;24.4.1 Heterogeneous Electron Transfer;660
26.4.2;24.4.2 Charge Separation at the Film/Dye Interface;663
26.4.3;24.4.3 Charge Recombination at the Film/Redox/Dye Interface;664
26.5;24.5 Summary;665
26.6;References;665
27;25 Magnetic Nanofluids: Synthesis and Structure;669
27.1;25.1 Introduction;670
27.1.1;25.1.1 Ferrofluids—Magnetically Controllable Nanofluids;670
27.1.2;25.1.2 Early History of Magnetic Fluids (A Short Review);670
27.1.3;25.1.3 Composition, Structure and Macroscopic Behavior;672
27.2;25.2 Synthesis of Magnetic Nanofluids;675
27.2.1;25.2.1 Generalities;675
27.2.2;25.2.2 Synthesis of Nanosized Magnetic Particles;675
27.2.2.1;25.2.2.1 Chemical Co-Precipitation;675
27.2.2.2;25.2.2.2 Thermal Decomposition. Size Selection Procedures;676
27.2.2.3;25.2.2.3 Iron and Cobalt Nanoparticles;678
27.2.3;25.2.3 Magnetic Nanofluids with Organic Carriers;680
27.2.3.1;25.2.3.1 Colloidal Stability, Sterical Stabilization;680
27.2.3.2;25.2.3.2 Synthesis Procedures;681
27.2.4;25.2.4 Water Based Magnetic Nanofluids;685
27.2.4.1;25.2.4.1 Stabilization Mechanisms;685
27.2.4.2;25.2.4.2 Synthesis Procedures, Technical Grade and Biocompatible Water Based MNFs;686
27.2.4.3;25.2.4.3 Surfactant Layers and Colloidal Stability;689
27.2.5;25.2.5 Long-Term Colloidal Stability of Magnetic Nanofluids;692
27.2.5.1;25.2.5.1 Effects of Surface Coating and Size of Magnetic Nanoparticles;692
27.2.5.2;25.2.5.2 Functionalized Coatings;696
27.2.6;25.2.6 Dilution Stability;698
27.3;25.3 Structure Investigations;703
27.3.1;25.3.1 Particle Structure;703
27.3.1.1;25.3.1.1 Non-Polarized Neutrons;703
27.3.1.2;25.3.1.2 Polarized Neutrons;710
27.3.1.3;25.3.1.3 Contrast Variation;715
27.3.2;25.3.2 Interaction;718
27.3.2.1;25.3.2.1 Interaction Potential;718
27.3.2.2;25.3.2.2 Cluster Formation;720
27.4;Acknowledgements;722
27.5;References;723