Smith Machine Tool Metrology

An Industrial Handbook
1. Auflage 2016
ISBN: 978-3-319-25109-7
Verlag: Springer Nature Switzerland
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 700 Seiten

Maximizing reader insights into the key scientific disciplines of Machine Tool Metrology, this text will prove useful for the industrial-practitioner and those interested in the operation of machine tools. Within this current level of industrial-content, this book incorporates significant usage of the existing published literature and valid information obtained from a wide-spectrum of manufacturers of plant, equipment and instrumentation before putting forward novel ideas and methodologies.Providing easy to understand bullet points and lucid descriptions of metrological and calibration subjects, this book aids reader understanding of the topics discussed whilst adding a voluminous-amount of footnotes utilised throughout all of the chapters, which adds some additional detail to the subject. Featuring an extensive amount of photographic-support, this book will serve as a key reference text for all those involved in the field. 

Graham T. Smith is the retired Head of the Technology Research Centre which was a specialised section within Southampton Solent University. He worked as a Professor of Industrial Engineering there, and was one of the three original Founder Members of the Laser Metrology & Machine Performance International Conferences (LAMDAMAP, which has been running from 1993 to the present. Professor Smith has lectured-widely within the UK at industrial and exhibition venues, likewise across a diverse-range of university campuses in both Europe and North America, moreover he has continued to maintain close-links in the related machine tool and metrology industries. He has also previously refereed technical submissions for The Machine Tool Technologies Association (now known as the MTA) as a judge for the biennial MACH-awards and has regularly undertaken book and journal reviews, as well as periodic technical articles for the Industrial Press. Furthermore, he has also acted as an Expert Witness for many engineering/metrological litigation cases for some years and has also produced certain specific end-user products for a range of international companies, during last 50-plus years.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Smith, Graham T.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Publishing History;5
2;Preface;6
3;Acknowledgements;8
4;Contents;10
5;1 Measurement and Machine Tools—An Introduction;19
5.1;1.1 Why the Need for Accurate and Precise Machine Tools—a Brief History;19
5.2;1.2 The Early Historical Development of a Linear Measurements;22
5.2.1;1.2.1 The Historical Development of the Metre and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM);27
5.2.2;1.2.2 Optical and Laser Length Measurement;30
5.3;1.3 International Standards Laboratories—Why They Are Essential;32
5.3.1;1.3.1 What Is Traceability and Why Is It Necessary?;33
5.3.2;1.3.2 Auditing Metrology: Artefacts, Instrumentation and Equipment;37
5.3.3;1.3.3 National Metrological Research and Calibration Laboratories;40
5.4;1.4 Machine Tool’s Machining Capabilities;50
5.5;1.5 Metrology Equipment Utilised for Basic Machine Tool Calibration Checks;55
5.5.1;1.5.1 Gauge Blocks;55
5.5.2;1.5.2 Length Bars;59
5.5.3;1.5.3 Combination Angle Gauges;62
5.5.4;1.5.4 Precision Polygons;64
5.5.5;1.5.5 Dial Gauges and Dial Test Indicators;66
5.5.6;1.5.6 Straightedges and Cylindrical Precision Mandrels;71
5.5.7;1.5.7 Precision- and Cylindrical Squares;77
5.6;1.6 A Concise History of Machine Tool Calibration;80
5.7;1.7 Notable Chronology in Machine Tool Testing;85
5.8;1.8 Achievable Accuracy and Precision of Machine Tools;87
5.9;1.9 Accuracy and Precision—Produced by a Machine Tool;92
5.10;1.10 Designation of Machine Tool Axes and Kinematics;102
5.11;1.11 Configurations of Machining and Turning Centres;108
5.11.1;1.11.1;108
5.11.2;1.11.2 Modular, or Reconfigurable Machine Tools;108
5.11.3;1.11.3 Modular Machine Tool Construction;111
5.11.4;1.11.4 Turning and Machining Centre Configurations;113
5.11.5;1.11.5 CNC Controller Developments;119
5.11.6;1.11.6 Non-orthogonalParallel Kinematic Machines (PKM);121
5.12;1.12 Major Elements in a Machine Tool’s Construction;125
5.12.1;1.12.1 Headstocks for Turning Centres and Spindles for Machining Centres;126
5.12.2;1.12.2 CNC Conventional Drive Systems and Recirculating Ballscrews;132
5.12.3;1.12.3 Machine Tool—Bearing Categories;144
5.12.4;1.12.4 Constructional Elements for Machine Tools;161
5.12.5;1.12.5 Linear Motor Drive Systems;172
5.12.6;1.12.6 Linear and Rotary Axis PositioningMonitoring Systems;177
5.13;1.13 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of Machine Tools;195
5.13.1;1.13.1 FEA of CNC Machine Tools;197
5.13.2;1.13.2 Industrial Machine Tool Case Study in FEA—for a Machining Centre;198
5.14;1.14 Basic Construction of Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs);201
5.14.1;1.14.1 Introduction to the CMM;201
5.14.2;1.14.2 CMM Construction;205
5.14.3;1.14.3 CMM—Mechanical Probe;206
5.14.4;1.14.4 Recent CMM Probing Systems;208
5.14.5;1.14.5 Micro-Metrology Probes;212
5.15;References;213
6;2 Laser Instrumentation and Calibration;219
6.1;2.1 Introduction to Lasers;219
6.1.1;2.1.1 Why Is Calibration so Important?;220
6.1.2;2.1.2 Calibration of Laser Interferometers;221
6.1.3;2.1.3 Laser Calibration—Potential Error and Uncertainty Sources;223
6.1.4;2.1.4 Introduction to Laser Machine Calibration;229
6.2;2.2 Methods of Machine Acceptance Tests—The Basis for Verification;232
6.2.1;2.2.1 ISO 230 Machine Tool Standards—Previous and Current Calibration Procedures;232
6.2.2;2.2.2 ISO 230—Laser Calibration Procedures on CNC Machine Tools;237
6.2.3;2.2.3 Laser Diagonal Displacement Test;240
6.2.4;2.2.4 Laser Step Diagonal Test;248
6.2.5;2.2.5 Potential Errors—In Three Axes Machine Tools;254
6.3;2.3 ISO 10360 for Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) Calibration and Verification;263
6.3.1;2.3.1 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)—Fundamentals;264
6.3.2;2.3.2 CMM—Environmental Conditions;271
6.3.3;2.3.3 CMM Performance Standards;271
6.4;2.4 Calibration of a Rotary Table—With a Rotary Indexer;273
6.4.1;2.4.1 AxisSet™ Checkup—Utilised for Machine Tool Alignments;277
6.5;2.5 Machine Tool Linear Axes—Factors Affecting Their Accuracy and Precision;279
6.6;2.6 Laser Tracker—Instrumentation, Testing and Applications;282
6.6.1;2.6.1 Laser Tracker—Calibration Procedures;285
6.6.2;2.6.2 Laser Tracker—Frequently Asked Questions;286
6.6.3;2.6.3 Laser Tracker—Machine-Based Research Applications;288
6.7;References;292
7;3 Optical Instrumentation for Machine Calibration;296
7.1;3.1 Basic Principles of Light;296
7.1.1;3.1.1 Optical Alignment—Basic Principles;301
7.2;3.2 Autocollimation Principles;304
7.2.1;3.2.1 Basic Design of an Autocollimator;304
7.2.2;3.2.2 Autocollimator—its Optical Operational Principle;307
7.2.3;3.2.3 Digital Autocollimators;308
7.2.4;3.2.4 Precision Polygons for Angular Measurements;313
7.2.5;3.2.5 Angular Calibration of a Precision Polygon;314
7.2.6;3.2.6 Calibration of a Rotary Table;316
7.3;3.3 The Micro-optic Dual-Axis Autocollimator, or Angledekkor;317
7.3.1;3.3.1 Optical Squares and Prisms;319
7.4;3.4 Alignment Telescope–Principles of Alignment;322
7.4.1;3.4.1 Targets for Autocollimators;333
7.4.2;3.4.2 Auto-reflection and Autocollimation;334
7.4.3;3.4.3 Calculating Mirror Gradients;336
7.4.4;3.4.4 Effects of the Earth’s Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction;337
7.5;3.5 Precision Spirit Level;340
7.6;3.6 Optical Instrumentation—Clinometers;345
7.7;3.7 Talyvel—Precision Level;350
7.7.1;3.7.1 Software Programs—for Precision Electronic Levels;354
7.8;References;359
8;4 Telescoping Ballbars and Other Diagnostic Instrumentation;362
8.1;4.1 Telescoping Ballbars;362
8.1.1;4.1.1 Machine Tool Health Checks—The Reason Why They Are Necessary;362
8.1.2;4.1.2 Telescoping Ballbars—Historical Development and Operation;363
8.1.3;4.1.3 Telescoping Ballbar—In More Detail;371
8.1.4;4.1.4 Ballbar Testing—Why the Need?;371
8.1.5;4.1.5 Wireless Telescoping Ballbar;373
8.1.6;4.1.6 Telescoping Ballbar—A Closer Examination of Machine Tool Inaccuracies;376
8.1.7;4.1.7 Ballbars—Other Instrumental Variations;377
8.2;4.2 Grid Encoders and Linear Comparator Systems;383
8.3;4.3 Rotary Analyzer System and Calibration Rings;389
8.4;4.4 Calibration Spheres and Rings—for CMMs;392
8.5;References;395
9;5 Artefacts for Machine Verification;398
9.1;5.1 Introduction to Artefact Verification—For Interim CMM Checks;398
9.1.1;5.1.1 An Introduction to CMM Error Sources;399
9.1.2;5.1.2 ISO 10360 and CMM Performance;399
9.1.3;5.1.3 Material Standard of Size and CMM Accuracy;402
9.1.4;5.1.4 CMM—Length Measurement and Maximum Permissible Errors;409
9.2;5.2 Purpose-Made Artefacts—Testpieces;410
9.3;5.3 General Artefacts for CMM Verification;411
9.3.1;5.3.1 Step Gauge—Its Calibration;411
9.3.2;5.3.2 Step Gauge—For Verification of the Accuracy of CMMs;412
9.3.3;5.3.3 Machine Checking Gauge (MCG);416
9.4;5.4 Ball- and Hole-Plates;423
9.4.1;5.4.1 The 3-D Ball-Plates;427
9.4.2;5.4.2 Ball- and Cube-Tetrahedrons;430
9.5;5.5 Large Reference Artefact—For Large-Scale CMM Verification;433
9.5.1;5.5.1 Large Reference Artefact (LRA)—Design and Construction;435
9.5.2;5.5.2 Large Reference Artefact—Reference Surfaces;436
9.5.3;5.5.3 Large Reference Artefact—Artefact Positioning, Alignment and Testing;439
9.5.4;5.5.4 Large Reference Artefact—Summary and Concluding Remarks;440
9.6;5.6 Machinable-Artefacts for Machine Tool Verification;441
9.6.1;5.6.1 Introduction to Machinable Testpiece Standards;441
9.6.2;5.6.2 Artefact Stereometry—For Dynamic Machine Tool and Comparative Assessment;443
9.6.3;5.6.3 Stereometric Artefact—Conceptual Design;444
9.6.4;5.6.4 Stereometric Artefact—Machining Trials;446
9.6.5;5.6.5 Stereometric Artefact—Machined and Metrological Results;452
9.7;5.7 Small Coordinate Measuring Machine (SCMM);455
9.7.1;5.7.1 Small Coordinate Measuring Machine—Design Requirements;455
9.7.2;5.7.2 Small Coordinate Measuring Machine—Interferometers, Autocollimators and Probe Design;458
9.8;5.8 A Novel 3-D-Nano Touch Probe—For an Ultra-Precision CMM;460
9.8.1;5.8.1 Probing Force and Surface Damage;462
9.8.2;5.8.2 The 3-D-Nano Touch Probe—Constructional Details;462
9.9;5.9 Robotic Arms;464
9.9.1;5.9.1 Industrial Robotics—Their Historical Development;465
9.9.2;5.9.2 Defining Robotic Parameters;466
9.9.3;5.9.3 Robotic Calibration;468
9.9.4;5.9.4 Robotic Calibration Devices and Techniques;470
9.10;5.10 Parallel Kinematic Mechanism (PKM)—Equator™ Gauge;474
9.10.1;5.10.1 Theory of Operation—Of the PKM;476
9.10.2;5.10.2 Calibrating This PKM;477
9.11;5.11 Articulated Arm CMM (AACMM);478
9.11.1;5.11.1 Articulated Arm CMMs—In More Detail;482
9.11.2;5.11.2 Verification of Articulated Arm CMM (AACMM);484
9.12;References;485
10;6 Machine Tool Performance: Spindle Analysis; Corrosion and Condition Monitoring; Thermography;489
10.1;6.1 Machine Tool Spindle Analysis;489
10.1.1;6.1.1 Design Trends in Machine Tool Spindles;491
10.1.2;6.1.2 Machine Tool Spindle Failure Modes;494
10.1.3;6.1.3 Complete Machine Tool Retrofits and Rebuilds;501
10.2;6.2 Monitoring and Diagnostics of Machine Tool Spindles;511
10.2.1;6.2.1 Spindle Monitoring Instrumentation—For Machine Tools;512
10.2.2;6.2.2 Thermal Distortion—At the Spindle;512
10.2.3;6.2.3 Spindle Error Motions;513
10.3;6.3 Spindle Error Analyser (SEA) Instrumentation;514
10.3.1;6.3.1 Spindle Error Analyser—The Master Target and Its Fixtures—Spindle Hardware;519
10.3.2;6.3.2 Spindle Error Analyser—Spindle Software;520
10.3.3;6.3.3 SEA—Thermal Drift—Resulting from Expansion of Materials;520
10.3.4;6.3.4 SEA—Thermal Tests;521
10.3.5;6.3.5 SEA—How Spindle Measurement Data is Displayed;522
10.3.6;6.3.6 SEA—Spindle Error Plots: For Analysis and Rectification of Bearings;522
10.4;6.4 Corrosion—Basic Concepts;523
10.4.1;6.4.1 Understanding Metallic Corrosion—In Brief;526
10.4.2;6.4.2 Machine Tool Spalling—of Bearings and Gears;530
10.4.3;6.4.3 Bearing Failure Modes—With Hard Particle Lubricant Contamination;530
10.4.4;6.4.4 Bearing Contamination;534
10.5;6.5 Condition Monitoring—Of Machine Tools;535
10.5.1;6.5.1 Condition Monitoring—Historical Perspective;537
10.5.2;6.5.2 Types of Condition Monitoring Systems;539
10.5.3;6.5.3 Condition Monitoring Systems—Establishing a Programme;540
10.6;6.6 Thermographical Inspection;543
10.6.1;6.6.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum—A Brief and Introductory History;543
10.6.2;6.6.2 Thermography—Further Information;548
10.6.3;6.6.3 Thermal Imaging Cameras;551
10.6.4;6.6.4 Emissivity—Thermal Radiation;553
10.6.5;6.6.5 Advantages and Limitations of Thermography;554
10.6.6;6.6.6 Effects of Temperature Variation in Machine Tools;555
10.6.7;6.6.7 Controlling Component Part Temperatures;559
10.6.8;6.6.8 Minimising Heat Sources;559
10.6.9;6.6.9 Temperature Control Strategies;560
10.7;References;562
11;7 Uncertainty of Measurement and Statistical Process Control;566
11.1;7.1 Conformance, Traceability and Measurement Uncertainty;566
11.2;7.2 Task-Specific Measurement Uncertainty;570
11.2.1;7.2.1 Traceability Reporting;570
11.2.2;7.2.2 Conformance Rules—for Metrological Equipment;573
11.3;7.3 Measurement Uncertainty—Typically Relating to Machine Tools and CMMs;576
11.3.1;7.3.1 Statements of Compliance—The Effect of Uncertainty;581
11.3.2;7.3.2 Uncertainty Issues;581
11.3.3;7.3.3 Statistical Measures—In Uncertainty Calculations;582
11.3.4;7.3.4 Origins of Uncertainties;589
11.3.5;7.3.5 Calculation of Measurement Uncertainty;590
11.3.6;7.3.6 Analysis of Uncertainty: Uncertainty Budgets;595
11.3.7;7.3.7 Reducing Measurement Uncertainty;599
11.4;7.4 Statistical Process Control (SPC)—In Production Output on Machine Tools;600
11.4.1;7.4.1 What is Statistical Process Control?;601
11.4.2;7.4.2 Control Chart Functions;602
11.4.3;7.4.3 Control Chart—Background Information;604
11.4.4;7.4.4 Control Chart Limits;606
11.4.5;7.4.5 Reading Control Charts;609
11.4.6;7.4.6 Computerised SPC Charts;611
11.5;7.5 Machine and Process Capability Studies;613
11.5.1;7.5.1 Machine and Process Capability Studies—Typical Procedure;613
11.5.2;7.5.2 Machine Capability Study—In Detail;614
11.5.3;7.5.3 Machine Tool Capability Study—Practical Example;616
11.5.4;7.5.4 Final Concluding Remarks;620
11.6;References;620
12;Appendices;624
13;Appendix 1a—ISO 230 Series—Accuracy Measurement Standards (Machining Centres);624
14;Appendix 1b—ISO 13041 Series—Accuracy Measurement Standards (Turning Centres);627
15;Appendix 1c—ISO 10360 Series—Acceptance and Verification Tests (Co-ordinate Measuring Machines);627
16;Appendix 1d—ISO 17025—General Requirements for Testing and Calibration Laboratories;628
17;Appendix 2—Photoelectric Scanning Techniques and Linear Digital Encoders—for Machine Displacement;629
18;Appendix 3a—Laser Measurement—Linear Alignment and Optical Configuration;635
19;Appendix 3b—Laser Measurement—Straightness Alignment and Optical Configuration;637
20;Appendix 3c—Laser Measurement—Squareness Alignment and Optical Configuration;639
21;Appendix 3d—Laser Measurement—Flatness Alignment and Optical Configuration;641
22;Appendix 3e—Laser Measurement—Angular Alignment and Optical Configuration;643
23;Appendix 3f—Laser Measurement—Rotary Alignment and Optical Configuration;645
24;Appendix 3g—Laser Measurement—Dynamic Analysis and Its Associated Software;647
25;Appendix 4i—Telescoping Ballbar—Axis Reversal Spikes—Circular Interpolating;649
26;Appendix 4ii—Telescoping Ballbar—Scale Mismatch—Cause and Effect;650
27;Appendix 4iii—Telescoping Ballbar—Backlash Step (Negative)—Cause and Effect;651
28;Appendix 4iv—Telescoping Ballbar—Backlash Step (Positive)—Cause and Effect;652
29;Appendix 4v—Telescoping Ballbar—Stick-Slip—Cause and Effect;653
30;Appendix 4vi—Telescoping Ballbar—Squareness—Cause and Effect;654
31;Appendix 4vii—Telescoping Ballbar—Servo-Mismatch—Cause and Effect;655
32;Appendix 4viii—Telescoping Ballbar—Cyclic Error—Cause and Effect;656
33;Appendix 4ix—Telescoping Ballbar—Machine Vibration—Cause and Effect;657
34;Appendix 4x—Telescoping Ballbar—Trouble-Shooting (Visual Guide);659
35;Appendix 4xi—Telescoping Ballbar—Trouble-Shooting (Visual Guide—continued);660
36;Appendix 4xii—Telescoping Ballbar—Calibration Artefact;661
37;Appendix 4xiii—Telescoping Ballbar—Static and Dynamic Testing;662
38;Appendix 4xiv—Telescoping Ballbar—Calibration on: Machining and Turning Centres;662
39;Appendix 5—Capability Study;664
40;Appendix 6a—Conversion Chart;664
41;Appendix 6b—Conversion Chart;665
42;Appendix 7—SI System of Units;667
43;References;673
44;Appendix 8—International Metrology Addresses;673
45;Appendix 9—International Company Addresses;680
46;Index;686