Toga Brain Mapping: The Methods

2. Auflage 2002
ISBN: 978-0-08-052828-1
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 877 Seiten

Investigation of the functional architecture of the human brain using modern noninvasive imaging techniques is a rapidly expanding area of research. A proper knowledge of methodology is needed to appreciate the burgeoning literature in the field. This timely publication provides an excellent catalogue of the main techniques. The authors offer an invaluable analysis of mapping strategies and techniques, providing everything from the foundations to the major pitfalls and practical applications of the modern techniques used in neuroimaging. Contains over 1000 full color pages with more than 200 color figures. Spanning the methodological gamut from the molecular level to the whole brain while discussing anatomy, physiology, and pathology, as well as their integration, Brain Mapping: The Methods, Second Edition, brings the reader a comprehensive, well-illustrated and entirely readable description of the methods for brain mapping. Drs. Toga and Mazziotta provide everything from the foundations to the major pitfalls and practical applications of the technique by assembling an impressive group of experts, all widely known in their field, who contribute an outstanding set of chapters.

Dr. Mazziotta is a Professor of Neurology, Radiological Sciences, and Pharmacology and the Pierson Lovelace Investigator at UCLA, as well as the Director of the UCLA Brain Mapping Program that he established in 1993. Dr. Mazziotta has published more than 190 research papers and five texts and has received numerous honor and achievement awards including the Oldendorf Award of the American Society of Neuroimaging, the S. Weir Mitchell Award of the American Academy of Neurology, and the Von Hevesy Prize from the International Society of Nuclear Medicine. Dr. Mazziotta has been chair of the Scientific Issues and Program Committee of the American Academy of Neurology. He is the President-Elect of the American Neuroimaging Society and is the President of the Brain Mapping Medical Research Organization. He is also Co-Editor-in-Chief of NeuroImage.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Toga, Arthur W.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Brain Mapping: The Methods;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Contents;6
5;Contributors;12
6;Preface;16
7;Acknowledgments;18
8;Part I: Introduction;20
8.1;Chapter 1. Introduction to Cartography of the Brain;22
8.1.1;I. Introduction to Cartography;22
8.1.2;II. The Dimensions of a Brain Map;25
8.1.3;III. The Full Scope of Brain Mapping;30
8.1.4;IV. Relationships to Other Biological Maps;33
8.1.5;V. Stereotaxy;34
8.1.6;VI. Nomenclature;36
8.1.7;VII. Detection Devices;37
8.1.8;VIII. Brain Maps: Content and Format;40
8.1.9;IX. Summary;44
8.1.10;References;45
8.2;Chapter 2. Time and Space;52
8.2.1;I. Introduction;52
8.2.2;II. Critical Variables in Brain Mapping Techniques;53
8.2.3;III. The Concept of Resolution;55
8.2.4;IV. Sampling;59
8.2.5;V. Sites Accessed;62
8.2.6;VI. Invasiveness;63
8.2.7;VII. Conclusions;63
8.2.8;References;64
9;Part II: Surface-Based Data Acquisition;66
9.1;Chapter 3. Optical Imaging of Neural Structure and Physiology: Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy in Live Brain Slices;68
9.1.1;I. Introduction;68
9.1.2;II. Live Brain Slice Preparation and Culture;70
9.1.3;III. Labeling Neuronal and Glial Cells in Brain Tissue Slices;71
9.1.4;IV. Imaging Methodology;76
9.1.5;V. Application: Mapping Neural Structure and Physiology in Developing Brain Slices;80
9.1.6;VI. Conclusions and Future Prospects;90
9.1.7;References;92
9.2;Chapter 4. Voltage and Calcium Imaging of Brain Activity: Examples from the Turtle and the Mouse;96
9.2.1;I. Why (and Why Not) Voltage and Calcium Imaging;96
9.2.2;II. Signal Type;97
9.2.3;III. Dyes;97
9.2.4;IV. Amplitude of the Voltage or Calcium Change;100
9.2.5;V. Noise in the Optical Measurements;100
9.2.6;VI. Light Sources;102
9.2.7;VII. Optics;102
9.2.8;VIII. Cameras;103
9.2.9;IX. Comparison of Local Field Potential and Voltage-Sensitive Dye Recording;104
9.2.10;X. Voltage-Sensitive Dye Recording in the Turtle Olfactory Bulb;104
9.2.11;XI. Calcium Dye Recording in the Mouse Olfactory Bulb;108
9.2.12;XII. Intrinsic Imaging and Fluorescence Signals from In Vivo Mammalian Brain;112
9.2.13;XIII. Summary and Future Directions;112
9.2.14;References;113
9.3;Chapter 5. Optical Imaging Based on Intrinsic Signals;116
9.3.1;I. Introduction;116
9.3.2;II. Sources of Intrinsic Signals and Wavelength Dependency;117
9.3.3;III. Preparation of an Animal for Optical Imaging;122
9.3.4;IV. The Apparatus;126
9.3.5;V. Data Acquisition;131
9.3.6;VI. Data Analysis for Mapping Functional Architecture;133
9.3.7;VII. Chronic Optical Imaging;140
9.3.8;VIII. Optical Imaging of the Human Neocortex;142
9.3.9;IX. Combining Optical Imaging with Other Techniques;144
9.3.10;X. Applications;149
9.3.11;XI. Comparison of Intrinsic Optical Imaging with Other Imaging Techniques;154
9.3.12;XII. Conclusions and Outlook;155
9.3.13;References;156
9.4;Chapter 6. Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Imaging;160
9.4.1;I. Introduction;160
9.4.2;II. Optical Window for Noninvasive Studies;161
9.4.3;III. Other Optical Parameters Relevant for Near-Infrared Studies;162
9.4.4;IV. Technical Approaches for Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Imaging;162
9.4.5;V. Physiological Parameters of NIRS Measurements;163
9.4.6;VI. Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Imaging: Applications;168
9.4.7;VII. Practical Aspects of NIRS Measurements;170
9.4.8;VIII. Problems and Perspectives;174
9.4.9;References;175
9.5;Chapter 7. Dynamic Measurements of Local Cerebral Blood Flow: Examples from Rodent Whisker Barrel Cortex;178
9.5.1;I. Why Measure Local Cerebral Blood Flow?;178
9.5.2;II. Function and Structural Contexts;179
9.5.3;III. Global Tracers;180
9.5.4;IV. Volatile Tracers;181
9.5.5;V. Doppler Flowmetry;182
9.5.6;VI. Video Microscopy;182
9.5.7;VII. Localization of Activity Changes;183
9.5.8;VIII. Diameter;184
9.5.9;IX. Intravascular Dyes;185
9.5.10;X. Intravascular Particles;186
9.5.11;XI. Localization of Flow Changes;188
9.5.12;XII. Conclusions and Prospects;188
9.5.13;References;189
9.6;Chapter 8. Electrophysiological Imaging of Brain Function;194
9.6.1;I. Introduction;194
9.6.2;II. The Electroencephalogram and Averaged Event-Related Potentials;195
9.6.3;III. Improving the Spatial Resolution of the Electroencephalogram;198
9.6.4;IV. Analysis of Functional Networks;202
9.6.5;V. The EEG as a Monitoring (vs Imaging) Modality;204
9.6.6;VI. Summary and Conclusions;205
9.6.7;References;205
9.7;Chapter 9. Electrophysiological Methods for Mapping Brain Motor and Sensory Circuits;208
9.7.1;I. Introduction and Historical Perspective;209
9.7.2;II. Structural versus Functional Brain Maps;210
9.7.3;III. Strengths of Electrophysiological Mapping Methods Compared to Other Brain Mapping Methods;210
9.7.4;IV. Contrasts between Sensory versus Motor System Mapping;211
9.7.5;V. Output Measures for Mapping Motor System Organization;213
9.7.6;VI. Electrical Stimulation and Other Input Measures for Mapping Motor System Organization;214
9.7.7;VII. Mapping Motor Output with Transcranial Stimulation of Cortex;216
9.7.8;VIII. Mapping Motor Output with Electrical Stimulation of the Cortical Surface;224
9.7.9;IX. Mapping Motor Output with Intracortical Microstimulation (ICMS);228
9.7.10;X. Mapping Motor Output with High-Density Microelectrode Arrays;230
9.7.11;XI. Mapping Motor Output with Spike-Triggered Averaging of EMG Activity from Single Neurons;232
9.7.12;XII. Mapping Motor Output with Stimulus-Triggered Averaging of EMG Activity (Single-Pulse ICMS);235
9.7.13;XIII. Comparison of Results from Spike-Triggered Averaging, Stimulus-Triggered Averaging, and Repetitive ICMS;238
9.7.14;XIV. Mapping the Output Terminations of Single Neurons Electrophysiologically;240
9.7.15;XV. The Future of Electrophysiological Mapping;241
9.7.16;References;242
9.8;Chapter 10. Magnetoencephalographic Characterization of Dynamic Brain Activation: Basic Principles and Methods of Data Collection and Source Analysis;246
9.8.1;I. Introduction;246
9.8.2;II. Generation of Neuromagnetic Fields;247
9.8.3;III. Instrumentation and Data Acquisition;252
9.8.4;IV. Source Analysis;257
9.8.5;V. Neuromagnetic Studies;263
9.8.6;VI. Conclusions and Future Directions;267
9.8.7;References;269
9.9;Chapter 11. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation;274
9.9.1;I. Introduction;274
9.9.2;II. Basic Principles of Magnetic Brain Stimulation;275
9.9.3;III. TMS in Clinical Neurophysiology;282
9.9.4;IV. TMS in Cognitive Neuroscience;289
9.9.5;V. TMS Limitations;298
9.9.6;References;304
10;Part III: Tomographic-Based Data Acquisition;310
10.1;Chapter 12. High-Field Magnetic Resonance;312
10.1.1;I. Introduction;312
10.1.2;II. Signal-to-Noise Ratio;313
10.1.3;III. Functional Brain Imaging;314
10.1.4;IV. Spectroscopy at High Magnetic Fields;327
10.1.5;References;332
10.2;Chapter 13. Functional MRI;336
10.2.1;I. Introduction;336
10.2.2;II. MRI: A Brief Primer;337
10.2.3;III. From MRI to fMRI;341
10.2.4;IV. Physics and Physiology;343
10.2.5;V. Sensitivity;351
10.2.6;VI. Resolution;357
10.2.7;VII. Structure-Function Integration;364
10.2.8;VII. Future;365
10.2.9;References;365
10.3;Chapter 14. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging;372
10.3.1;I. Introduction;372
10.3.2;II. Basics of in Vivo MR Spectroscopy;373
10.3.3;III. MRSI Data Acquisition Methods;378
10.3.4;IV. Data Processing Methods;382
10.3.5;V. MRSI Data Analysis;387
10.3.6;VI. Applications;392
10.3.7;VII. Emerging Technologies;394
10.3.8;VIII. Conclusion;394
10.3.9;References;395
10.4;Chapter 15. Principles, Methods, and Applications of Diffusion Tensor Imaging;400
10.4.1;I. Diffusion Measurement by NMR;400
10.4.2;II. Diffusion Tensor Imaging;405
10.4.3;III. Data Visualization and Analysis of DTI;409
10.4.4;IV. Application Studies;412
10.4.5;V. Summary;416
10.4.6;References;416
10.5;Chapter 16. Neuroanatomical Micromagnetic Resonance Imaging;420
10.5.1;I. Introduction;420
10.5.2;II. Magnetic Resonance Basics;421
10.5.3;III. Magnetic Resonance Imaging Basics;424
10.5.4;IV. k Space and MR Images;426
10.5.5;V. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) and Contrast-to-Noise Ratio (CNR);427
10.5.6;VI. T1- and T2-Induced Contrasts;428
10.5.7;VII. Diffusion-Weighted, Perfusion, and Water Displacement Imaging;430
10.5.8;VIII. Microscopic MRI;432
10.5.9;IX. Micromagnetic Resonance Imaging of the Nervous System;434
10.5.10;X. Concluding Remarks;440
10.5.11;References;442
10.6;Chapter 17. CT Angiography and CT Perfusion Imaging;448
10.6.1;I. Introduction;448
10.6.2;II. Technical Background;452
10.6.3;III. Scanning Protocols: Acquisition, Postprocessing, Analysis, and Interpretation;477
10.6.4;IV. Clinical Utility;483
10.6.5;V. Conclusions;497
10.6.6;References;499
10.7;Chapter 18. Imaging Brain Function with Positron Emission Tomography;506
10.7.1;I. Introduction;506
10.7.2;II. Basic Overview and Principles of PET;507
10.7.3;III. Preparation of Positron-Labeled Compounds;508
10.7.4;IV. PET Scanners;510
10.7.5;V. PET Data Correction and Image Reconstruction;515
10.7.6;VI. Tracer Kinetic Models;519
10.7.7;VII. Task-Specific Mapping of the Human Brain;522
10.7.8;VIII. Mapping Brain Function in Development and Disease;525
10.7.9;IX. High-Resolution PET Studies in Animal Models;527
10.7.10;X. Summary;529
10.7.11;References;529
10.8;Chapter 19. SPECT Functional Brain Imaging;534
10.8.1;I. Introduction;534
10.8.2;II. Instrumentation;535
10.8.3;III. Radiopharmaceuticals;541
10.8.4;IV. Factors That Affect Image Appearance;546
10.8.5;V. Intercomparison of Neuroimaging Techniques for the Quantification of rCBF;549
10.8.6;VI. Radiation Risk Issues;553
10.8.7;VII. Conclusions;554
10.8.8;References;554
11;Part IV: Postmortem;558
11.1;Chapter 20. Postmortem Anatomy;560
11.1.1;I. Introduction;560
11.1.2;II. The Representation of Anatomy;561
11.1.3;III. The Specimen;562
11.1.4;IV. Preservation of Anatomical Information;564
11.1.5;V. Preparing the Specimen for Cutting;566
11.1.6;VI. Histological Slides;567
11.1.7;VII. Histological Methods;569
11.1.8;VIII. Anatomical Visualization;576
11.1.9;IX. Quantification;580
11.1.10;X. 3D Reconstruction;581
11.1.11;XI. Epilogue;585
11.1.12;References;587
11.2;Chapter 21. Quantitative Analysis of Cyto- and Receptor Architecture of the Human Brain;596
11.2.1;I. Introduction;596
11.2.2;II. Principles of Cytoarchitectonic Analysis;598
11.2.3;III. Observer-Independent Mapping of the Human Cerebral Cortex;602
11.2.4;IV. Quantitative Autoradiography of Different Receptor Binding Sites;610
11.2.5;V. Perspectives of Architectonic Mapping;621
11.2.6;References;622
12;Part V: Analysis;626
12.1;Chapter 22. Statistics I: Experimental Design and Statistical Parametric Mapping;628
12.1.1;I. Introduction;628
12.1.2;II. Functional Specialization and Integration;629
12.1.3;III. Spatial Realignment and Normalization;630
12.1.4;IV. Statistical Parametric Mapping;633
12.1.5;V. Experimental Design;639
12.1.6;VI. Designing fMRI Studies;641
12.1.7;VII. Inferences about Subjects and Populations;647
12.1.8;VIII. Effective Connectivity;650
12.1.9;References;653
12.2;Chapter 23. Statistics II: Correlation of Brain Structure and Function;656
12.2.1;I. Introduction;656
12.2.2;II. Intrasubject Multimodal Integration;658
12.2.3;III. Clinical Examples of Intrasubject Multimodal Registration;663
12.2.4;IV. Intersubject Multimodal Integration;672
12.2.5;V. Conclusion;680
12.2.6;References;680
12.3;Chapter 24. Advanced Nonrigid Registration Algorithms for Image Fusion;684
12.3.1;I. Introduction;684
12.3.2;II. Intermodality and Multicontrast Images;685
12.3.3;III. Image Fusion during Neurosurgery with a Biomechanical Model of Brain Deformation;691
12.3.4;IV. Physics-Based Regularization with an Empirical Model of Anatomical Variability;697
12.3.5;V. Registration of Diffusion Tensor Images;700
12.3.6;VI. The Monge-Kantorovich Problem and Image Registration;706
12.3.7;References;710
12.4;Chapter 25. Combination of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Brain Mapping;714
12.4.1;I. Introduction;714
12.4.2;II. Neurophysiological Underpinnings of the Signal;714
12.4.3;III. Combination of TMS and Brain Mapping;716
12.4.4;IV. Conclusion;725
12.4.5;References;726
12.5;Chapter 26. Volume Visualization;730
12.5.1;I. Introduction;730
12.5.2;II. Segmentation;732
12.5.3;III. Surface Extraction;734
12.5.4;IV. Direct Volume Visualization;735
12.5.5;V. Visualization of Transformed Data;740
12.5.6;VI. Image Fusion;740
12.5.7;VII. Intelligent Visualization;741
12.5.8;VIII. Image Quality;743
12.5.9;IX. Conclusions;743
12.5.10;References;744
13;Part VI: Databases and Atlases;748
13.1;Chapter 27. The International Consortium for Brain Mapping: A Probabilistic Atlas and Reference System for the Human Brain;750
13.1.1;I. Introduction;750
13.1.2;II. Motivation for Developing a Probabilistic Human Brain Atlas;751
13.1.3;III. Strategy and Rationale;752
13.1.4;IV. Methods and Results;764
13.1.5;V. Other Issues;772
13.1.6;VI. Limitations and Deliverables;772
13.1.7;VII. Conclusions;773
13.1.8;References;774
13.2;Chapter 28. Subpopulation Brain Atlases;780
13.2.1;I. Population-Based Brain Imaging;780
13.2.2;II. Atlases in Brain Mapping;782
13.2.3;III. Anatomical Modeling;784
13.2.4;IV. Population Maps of the Cortex;789
13.2.5;V. Brain Averaging;796
13.2.6;VI. Atlas Statistics: Probabilistic Atlases;798
13.2.7;VII. Applications to Development and Disease;802
13.2.8;VIII. Dynamic Brain Maps;803
13.2.9;IX. Genetic Brain Maps;807
13.2.10;X. Subpopulation Selections;809
13.2.11;XI. Conclusions;811
13.2.12;References;811
14;Part VII: Emerging Concepts;820
14.1;Chapter 29. Radionuclide Imaging of Reporter Gene Expression;822
14.1.1;I. Overview of Molecular Imaging;822
14.1.2;II. Instrumentation for Molecular Imaging;823
14.1.3;III. Reporter Genes;823
14.1.4;IV. Adapting the Reporter Gene Concept for Radionuclide Imaging;824
14.1.5;V. Application of in Vivo Reporter Gene Imaging to Monitor Gene Therapy Regimens;829
14.1.6;VI. Indirect Imaging of Endogenous Gene Expression through Coupling Endogenous Promoters with Reporter Genes;832
14.1.7;VII. Antisense Reporter Probes for Imaging Endogenous Gene Expression in Vivo;835
14.1.8;VIII. Nonradionuclide Approaches to Reporter Gene Imaging;835
14.1.9;IX. Specific Issues for Neuroscience Applications;836
14.1.10;X. Human Gene Therapy of Brain Tumors and Imaging Studies;836
14.1.11;XI. Conclusion;838
14.1.12;References;838
15;Chapter 30. Mapping Gene Expression by MRI;842
15.1;I. Introduction;842
15.2;II. MRI Contrast Agents;842
15.3;III. Biochemically Activated MR Contrast Agents;844
15.4;IV. Targeted MR Contrast Agents;846
15.5;V. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Gene Expression;848
15.6;VI. Conclusion;850
15.7;References;850
16;Chapter 31. Speculations about the Future;852
16.1;I. Introduction;852
16.2;II. Previous Predictions and Their Outcomes;852
16.3;III. New Predictions;861
16.4;IV. Conclusion;874
16.5;References;874
17;Index;880