Ul-Hamid A Beginners' Guide to Scanning Electron Microscopy

1. Auflage 2018
ISBN: 978-3-319-98482-7
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 402 Seiten

This book was developed with the goal of providing an easily understood text for those users of the scanning electron microscope (SEM) who have little or no background in the area. The SEM is routinely used to study the surface structure and chemistry of a wide range of biological and synthetic materials at the micrometer to nanometer scale. Ease-of-use, typically facile sample preparation, and straightforward image interpretation, combined with high resolution, high depth of field, and the ability to undertake microchemical and crystallographic analysis, has made scanning electron microscopy one of the most powerful and versatile techniques for characterization today. Indeed, the SEM is a vital tool for the characterization of nanostructured materials and the development of nanotechnology. However, its wide use by professionals with diverse technical backgrounds—including life science, materials science, engineering, forensics, mineralogy, etc., and in various sectors of government, industry, and academia—emphasizes the need for an introductory text providing the basics of effective SEM imaging.

A Beginners’ Guide to Scanning Electron Microscopy explains instrumentation, operation, image interpretation and sample preparation in a wide ranging yet succinct and practical text, treating the essential theory of specimen-beam interaction and image formation in a manner that can be effortlessly comprehended by the novice SEM user. This book 

• provides a concise and accessible introduction to the essentials of SEM
  
• includes a large number of illustrations specifically chosen to aid readers' understanding of key concepts
  
• highlights recent advances in instrumentation, imaging and sample preparation techniques
  
• offers examples drawn from a variety of applications that appeal to professionals from diverse backgrounds.
  

Autoren/Hrsg.

Ul-Hamid, Anwar

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;7
2;Contents;9
3;Abbreviations;16
4;Symbols List;18
5;1: Introduction;22
5.1;1.1 What Is the SEM;22
5.2;1.2 Image Resolution in the SEM;22
5.3;1.3 Image Formation in the SEM;25
5.4;1.4 Information Obtained Using the SEM;25
5.5;1.5 Strengths and Limitations of the SEM;29
5.6;1.6 Brief History of the SEM Development;32
5.7;References;35
6;2: Components of the SEM;36
6.1;2.1 Electron Column;36
6.1.1;2.1.1 Electron Gun;38
6.1.1.1;2.1.1.1 Current Density and Brightness of the Electron Source;38
6.1.1.2;2.1.1.2 Size of the Electron Source;39
6.1.1.3;2.1.1.3 Stability of the Electron Source;41
6.1.1.4;2.1.1.4 Energy Spread of Electrons;41
6.2;2.2 Thermionic Emission Electron Guns;41
6.2.1;2.2.1 Tungsten Filament Gun;43
6.2.1.1;2.2.1.1 Material;43
6.2.1.2;2.2.1.2 Working Principle;44
6.2.1.3;2.2.1.3 Role of Self-Regulating Bias Resistor;45
6.2.1.4;2.2.1.4 Saturation;47
6.2.1.5;2.2.1.5 Advantages/Drawbacks;48
6.2.1.6;2.2.1.6 Service Lifetime;48
6.2.2;2.2.2 Lanthanum Hexaboride (LaB6) Emitter;49
6.2.2.1;2.2.2.1 Material;49
6.2.2.2;2.2.2.2 Tip Design;50
6.2.2.3;2.2.2.3 Advantages/Drawbacks;50
6.3;2.3 Field Emission Electron Guns;51
6.3.1;2.3.1 Working Principle;51
6.3.2;2.3.2 Advantages/Drawbacks;52
6.3.3;2.3.3 Cold Field Emitter (Cold FEG);53
6.3.3.1;2.3.3.1 Working Principle;53
6.3.3.2;2.3.3.2 Service Lifetime;54
6.3.3.3;2.3.3.3 Advantages/Drawbacks;55
6.3.4;2.3.4 Schottky Field Emitter;55
6.3.5;2.3.5 Recent Advances;57
6.4;2.4 Electromagnetic Lenses;58
6.4.1;2.4.1 Condenser Lens;60
6.4.2;2.4.2 Apertures;62
6.4.3;2.4.3 Objective Lens;62
6.4.3.1;2.4.3.1 Pinhole Lens;62
6.4.3.2;2.4.3.2 Immersion Lens;63
6.4.3.3;2.4.3.3 Snorkel Lens;63
6.4.4;2.4.4 Lens Aberrations;65
6.4.4.1;2.4.4.1 Spherical Aberration;65
6.4.4.2;2.4.4.2 Chromatic Aberration;66
6.4.4.3;2.4.4.3 Diffraction at Aperture;68
6.4.4.4;2.4.4.4 Astigmatism;69
6.4.4.5;2.4.4.5 Effective Probe Diameter;71
6.4.5;2.4.5 Scan Coils;73
6.4.6;2.4.6 Magnification;74
6.5;2.5 Specimen Chamber;77
6.5.1;2.5.1 Specimen Stage;77
6.5.2;2.5.2 Infrared Camera;79
6.6;2.6 Detectors;80
6.6.1;2.6.1 Everhart-Thornley Detector;80
6.6.1.1;2.6.1.1 Working Principle;80
6.6.1.2;2.6.1.2 Efficiency of Signal Collection;83
6.6.1.3;2.6.1.3 Types of Signals Collected;84
6.6.1.4;2.6.1.4 Advantages of E-T Detector;85
6.6.2;2.6.2 Through-the-Lens (TTL) Detector;85
6.6.3;2.6.3 Backscattered Electron Detector;87
6.6.3.1;2.6.3.1 Working Principle;87
6.6.3.2;2.6.3.2 Advantages/Drawbacks;90
6.6.3.3;2.6.3.3 Scintillator BSE Detector;92
6.6.3.4;2.6.3.4 Channel Plate Detector;92
6.7;2.7 Miscellaneous Components;92
6.7.1;2.7.1 Computer Control System;92
6.7.2;2.7.2 Vacuum System;93
6.7.3;2.7.3 High-Voltage Power Supply (HT Tank);95
6.7.4;2.7.4 Water Chiller;95
6.7.5;2.7.5 Heater;96
6.7.6;2.7.6 Anti-vibration Platform;96
6.8;References;97
7;3: Contrast Formation in the SEM;98
7.1;3.1 Image Formation;98
7.1.1;3.1.1 Digital Imaging;99
7.1.2;3.1.2 Relationship Between Picture Element and Pixel;101
7.1.3;3.1.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR);103
7.1.4;3.1.4 Contrast Formation;106
7.2;3.2 Beam-Specimen Interaction;107
7.2.1;3.2.1 Atom Model;107
7.2.2;3.2.2 Elastic Scattering;108
7.2.3;3.2.3 Inelastic Scattering;109
7.2.4;3.2.4 Effect of Electron Scattering;110
7.2.5;3.2.5 Interaction Volume;111
7.2.5.1;3.2.5.1 Effect of Beam Energy on Interaction Volume;111
7.2.5.2;3.2.5.2 Effect of Atomic Number on Interaction Volume;112
7.2.5.3;3.2.5.3 Effect of Tilt on Interaction Volume;114
7.2.6;3.2.6 Electron Range;114
7.3;3.3 Origin of Backscattered and Secondary Electrons;116
7.3.1;3.3.1 Origin of Backscattered Electrons (BSE);116
7.3.2;3.3.2 Origin of Secondary Electrons (SE);116
7.4;3.4 Types of Contrast;118
7.4.1;3.4.1 Compositional or Atomic Number (Z) Contrast (Backscattered Electron Imaging);118
7.4.1.1;3.4.1.1 Yield of Backscattered Electrons;118
7.4.1.2;3.4.1.2 Energy Distribution of BSE Yield;118
7.4.1.3;3.4.1.3 Effect of Beam Energy on BSE Yield;119
7.4.1.4;3.4.1.4 Effect of Atomic Number on BSE Yield;119
7.4.1.5;3.4.1.5 Effect of Tilt on BSE Yield;122
7.4.1.6;3.4.1.6 Effect of Crystal Structure on BSE Yield;122
7.4.1.7;3.4.1.7 Directional Dependence of BSE Yield;122
7.4.1.8;3.4.1.8 Collection Efficiency of the BSE Detector;125
7.4.1.9;3.4.1.9 Spatial Distribution of BSE;126
7.4.1.10;3.4.1.10 Formation of Compositional or Z Contrast with BSE;127
7.4.1.11;3.4.1.11 Spatial Resolution of BSE Images;131
7.4.1.12;3.4.1.12 Applications of Backscattered Electron Imaging;132
7.4.1.13;3.4.1.13 Limitations of Backscattered Electron Imaging;133
7.4.2;3.4.2 Topographic Contrast (Secondary Electron Imaging);134
7.4.2.1;3.4.2.1 Secondary Electron Yield;134
7.4.2.2;3.4.2.2 Escape Depth of SE;134
7.4.2.3;3.4.2.3 Energy Distribution of SE;135
7.4.2.4;3.4.2.4 Types of SE Signal (SE1, SE2, SE3, SE4);136
7.4.2.5;3.4.2.5 Effect of Beam Energy on SE Yield;139
7.4.2.6;3.4.2.6 Effect of Atomic Number on SE Yield;141
7.4.2.7;3.4.2.7 Effect of Tilt on SE Yield;141
7.4.2.8;3.4.2.8 Directional Dependence of SE Yield;143
7.4.2.9;3.4.2.9 Formation of Topographic Contrast with SE;143
7.4.2.9.1;E-T Detector;143
7.4.2.9.2;Factors Affecting Topographic Contrast;144
7.4.2.9.3;Edge Effect;145
7.4.2.9.4;Spherical Particles;147
7.4.2.9.5;Non-regular Specimens;147
7.4.2.9.6;Effect of Lateral Placement of E-T Detector;147
7.5;References;148
8;4: Imaging with the SEM;150
8.1;4.1 Resolution;150
8.1.1;4.1.1 Criteria of Spatial Resolution Limit;152
8.1.1.1;4.1.1.1 Rayleigh Criterion;152
8.1.1.2;4.1.1.2 Sparrow Criterion;153
8.1.1.3;4.1.1.3 Schuster´s Criterion;153
8.1.1.4;4.1.1.4 Houston Criterion;153
8.1.1.5;4.1.1.5 Buxton Criterion;153
8.1.1.6;4.1.1.6 Edge Resolution;153
8.1.1.7;4.1.1.7 Radial Intensity Distribution;153
8.1.1.8;4.1.1.8 Maximum Spatial Frequency;154
8.1.2;4.1.2 Imaging Parameters That Control the Spatial Resolution;155
8.1.2.1;4.1.2.1 Probe Size;155
8.1.2.2;4.1.2.2 Beam Current;156
8.1.2.3;4.1.2.3 Convergence Angle of the Probe;156
8.1.2.4;4.1.2.4 Accelerating Voltage;157
8.1.3;4.1.3 Guidelines for High-Resolution Imaging;159
8.1.4;4.1.4 Factors that Limit Spatial Resolution;161
8.2;4.2 Depth of Field;162
8.3;4.3 Influence of Operational Parameters on SEM Images;167
8.3.1;4.3.1 Effect of Accelerating Voltage (Beam Energy);167
8.3.2;4.3.2 Effect of Probe Current/Spot Size;168
8.3.3;4.3.3 Effect of Working Distance;172
8.3.4;4.3.4 Effect of Objective Aperture;175
8.3.5;4.3.5 Effect of Specimen Tilt;178
8.3.6;4.3.6 Effect of Incorrect Column Alignment;180
8.4;4.4 Effects of Electron Beam on the Specimen Surface;181
8.4.1;4.4.1 Specimen Charging;181
8.4.1.1;4.4.1.1 Methods to Reduce Charge Buildup;184
8.4.2;4.4.2 Surface Contamination;187
8.4.3;4.4.3 Beam Damage;188
8.5;4.5 Influence of External Factors on SEM Imaging;189
8.5.1;4.5.1 Electromagnetic Interference;190
8.5.2;4.5.2 Floor Vibrations;190
8.5.3;4.5.3 Poor Microscope Maintenance;191
8.6;4.6 Summary of Operating Conditions and Their Effects;192
8.7;4.7 SEM Operation;193
8.7.1;4.7.1 Sample Handling;194
8.7.1.1;4.7.1.1 Sample Size;194
8.7.1.2;4.7.1.2 Sample Preparation;194
8.7.2;4.7.2 Sample Insertion;195
8.7.3;4.7.3 Image Acquisition;196
8.7.4;4.7.4 Microscope Alignment;197
8.7.5;4.7.5 Maintenance of the SEM;198
8.8;4.8 Safety Requirements;199
8.8.1;4.8.1 Radiation Safety;199
8.8.2;4.8.2 Safe Handling of the SEM and Related Equipment;200
8.8.3;4.8.3 Emergency;200
8.9;References;201
9;5: Specialized SEM Techniques;202
9.1;5.1 Imaging at Low Voltage;202
9.1.1;5.1.1 Electron Energy Filtering;203
9.1.1.1;5.1.1.1 E x B Filter;204
9.1.1.2;5.1.1.2 r-Filter;204
9.1.2;5.1.2 Detector Technology;204
9.1.2.1;5.1.2.1 Energy Selective Backscatter (EsB) Detector (Made by Zeiss);204
9.1.2.2;5.1.2.2 Upper Electron Detector, UED (Made by JEOL Ltd);204
9.1.2.3;5.1.2.3 Solid-State Backscattered Detector;207
9.1.3;5.1.3 Electron Beam Deceleration;207
9.1.4;5.1.4 Recent Developments;208
9.1.5;5.1.5 Applications;210
9.2;5.2 Imaging at Low Vacuum;210
9.2.1;5.2.1 Introduction;210
9.2.2;5.2.2 Brief History;211
9.2.3;5.2.3 Working Principle;211
9.2.4;5.2.4 Detector for Low Vacuum Mode;213
9.2.5;5.2.5 Gas Path Length;214
9.2.6;5.2.6 Applications;217
9.2.7;5.2.7 Latest Developments;218
9.3;5.3 Focused Ion Beam (FIB);218
9.3.1;5.3.1 Introduction;218
9.3.2;5.3.2 Instrumentation;223
9.3.2.1;5.3.2.1 Ion Sources;223
9.3.2.2;5.3.2.2 Lens System;225
9.3.2.3;5.3.2.3 Stage;225
9.3.2.4;5.3.2.4 Detector;225
9.3.3;5.3.3 Ion-Solid Interactions;225
9.3.4;5.3.4 Ion Imaging;226
9.4;5.4 STEM-in-SEM;227
9.4.1;5.4.1 Working Principle;227
9.4.2;5.4.2 Advantages/Drawbacks;229
9.4.3;5.4.3 Applications;229
9.5;5.5 Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD);231
9.5.1;5.5.1 Brief History;232
9.5.2;5.5.2 Working Principle;232
9.5.3;5.5.3 Experimental Setup;234
9.5.4;5.5.4 Applications;236
9.6;5.6 Electron Beam Lithography;239
9.6.1;5.6.1 Introduction;239
9.6.2;5.6.2 Experimental Set-Up;240
9.6.3;5.6.3 Classification of E-beam Lithography Systems;241
9.6.4;5.6.4 Working Principle;242
9.6.4.1;5.6.4.1 Beam Deflection and Blanking;242
9.6.4.2;5.6.4.2 Pattern Design and Electron Beam Resist;242
9.6.4.3;5.6.4.3 Pattern Processing;243
9.6.5;5.6.5 Applications;243
9.7;5.7 Electron Beam-Induced Deposition (EBID);245
9.7.1;5.7.1 Mechanism;245
9.7.2;5.7.2 Advantages/Disadvantages of EBID;246
9.7.3;5.7.3 Applications;246
9.8;5.8 Cathodoluminescence;247
9.8.1;5.8.1 Introduction;247
9.8.2;5.8.2 Instrumentation;248
9.8.3;5.8.3 Strengths and Limitations of SEM-CL;250
9.8.4;5.8.4 Applications;251
9.9;References;251
10;6: Characteristics of X-Rays;254
10.1;6.1 Atom Model;254
10.2;6.2 Production of X-Rays;255
10.2.1;6.2.1 Characteristic X-Rays;255
10.2.2;6.2.2 Continuous X-Rays;257
10.2.3;6.2.3 Duane-Hunt Limit;260
10.2.4;6.2.4 Kramer´s Law;260
10.2.5;6.2.5 Implication of Continuous X-Rays;261
10.3;6.3 Orbital Transitions;263
10.3.1;6.3.1 Nomenclature Used for Orbital Transition;263
10.3.2;6.3.2 Energy of Orbital Transition;263
10.3.3;6.3.3 Moseley´s Law;265
10.3.4;6.3.4 Critical Excitation Energy (Excitation Potential);265
10.3.5;6.3.5 Cross Section of Inner-Shell Ionization;267
10.3.6;6.3.6 Overvoltage;268
10.4;6.4 Properties of Emitted X-Rays;270
10.4.1;6.4.1 Excited X-Ray Lines;270
10.4.2;6.4.2 X-Ray Range;271
10.4.3;6.4.3 X-Ray Spatial Resolution;272
10.4.4;6.4.4 Depth Distribution Profile;274
10.4.5;6.4.5 Relationship Between Depth Distribution ?(?z) and Mass Depth (?z);275
10.4.6;6.4.6 X-Ray Absorption (Mass Absorption Coefficient);277
10.4.6.1;6.4.6.1 Mass Absorption Coefficient in a Single Element;280
10.4.6.2;6.4.6.2 Mass Absorption Coefficient in a Mixer of Elements;281
10.4.7;6.4.7 Secondary X-Ray Fluorescence;282
10.5;References;284
11;7: Microchemical Analysis in the SEM;286
11.1;7.1 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS);286
11.1.1;7.1.1 Working Principle;288
11.1.2;7.1.2 Advantages/Drawbacks of EDS Detector;293
11.2;7.2 Qualitative EDS Analysis;293
11.2.1;7.2.1 Selection of Beam Voltage and Current;294
11.2.2;7.2.2 Peak Acquisition;294
11.2.3;7.2.3 Peak Identification;294
11.2.4;7.2.4 Peak to Background Ratios;296
11.2.5;7.2.5 Background Correction;296
11.2.6;7.2.6 Duration of EDS Analysis;296
11.2.7;7.2.7 Dead Time;297
11.2.8;7.2.8 Resolution of EDS Detector;297
11.2.9;7.2.9 Overlapping Peaks;299
11.3;7.3 Artifacts in EDS Analysis;299
11.3.1;7.3.1 Peak Distortion;299
11.3.2;7.3.2 Peak Broadening;299
11.3.3;7.3.3 Escape Peaks;302
11.3.4;7.3.4 Sum Peaks;303
11.3.5;7.3.5 The Internal Fluorescence Peak;304
11.4;7.4 Display of EDS Information;304
11.4.1;7.4.1 EDS Spectra;305
11.4.2;7.4.2 X-Ray Maps;305
11.4.3;7.4.3 Line Scans;306
11.5;7.5 Quantitative EDS Analysis;308
11.5.1;7.5.1 Introduction;308
11.5.2;7.5.2 EDS with Standards;310
11.5.2.1;7.5.2.1 Castaing´s First Approximation;310
11.5.2.2;7.5.2.2 Deviation from Castaing´s First Approximation;311
11.5.2.3;7.5.2.3 Matrix Effects;312
11.5.2.3.1;Atomic Number Effect;312
11.5.2.3.2;Absorption Effect;314
11.5.2.3.3;Fluorescence Effect;314
11.5.2.4;7.5.2.4 ZAF Iterative Process;315
11.5.2.5;7.5.2.5 Phi-Rho-Z Correction Method;316
11.5.3;7.5.3 Examples of ZAF Correction Method;316
11.5.3.1;7.5.3.1 Stainless Steel;317
11.6;7.6 Standardless EDS Analysis;317
11.6.1;7.6.1 First Principles Standardless Analysis;319
11.6.2;7.6.2 Fitted Standards Standardless Analysis;319
11.7;7.7 Low-Voltage EDS;320
11.8;7.8 Minimum Detectability Limit (MDL);321
11.9;7.9 Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (WDS);321
11.9.1;7.9.1 Instrumentation;321
11.9.2;7.9.2 Working Principle;322
11.9.3;7.9.3 Analytical Crystals;325
11.9.4;7.9.4 Detection of X-Rays;325
11.9.5;7.9.5 Advantages/Drawbacks of WDS Technique;326
11.9.5.1;7.9.5.1 Advantages;326
11.9.5.2;7.9.5.2 Disadvantages;326
11.9.6;7.9.6 Qualitative WDS Analysis;327
11.10;References;327
12;8: Sample Preparation;329
12.1;8.1 Metals, Alloys, and Ceramics;329
12.1.1;8.1.1 Sampling;329
12.1.2;8.1.2 Sectioning;330
12.1.3;8.1.3 Cleaning;330
12.1.4;8.1.4 Embedding and Mounting;332
12.1.5;8.1.5 Grinding, Lapping, and Polishing;332
12.1.6;8.1.6 Impregnation;335
12.1.7;8.1.7 Etching;335
12.1.8;8.1.8 Fixing;336
12.1.9;8.1.9 Fracturing;336
12.1.10;8.1.10 Coating Process;338
12.1.10.1;8.1.10.1 Sputter Coating;338
12.1.10.1.1;Advantages;339
12.1.10.1.2;Limitations;340
12.1.10.2;8.1.10.2 Metal Coating by Vacuum Evaporation;340
12.1.10.2.1;Advantages;341
12.1.10.2.2;Disadvantages;341
12.1.10.3;8.1.10.3 Coating by Carbon Evaporation;341
12.1.10.4;8.1.10.4 Imaging of Coated Specimens;342
12.1.11;8.1.11 Marking Specimens;343
12.1.12;8.1.12 Specimen Handling and Storage;343
12.2;8.2 Geological Materials;344
12.2.1;8.2.1 Preliminary Preparation;344
12.2.2;8.2.2 Cleaning;344
12.2.3;8.2.3 Drying;345
12.2.4;8.2.4 Impregnation;345
12.2.5;8.2.5 Replicas and Casts;346
12.2.6;8.2.6 Rock Sample Cutting;346
12.2.7;8.2.7 Mounting the Sample into the SEM Holder;346
12.2.7.1;8.2.7.1 Using Stub;346
12.2.7.2;8.2.7.2 Embedding Media to the Sample;346
12.2.7.3;8.2.7.3 Grain Mounts;347
12.2.7.4;8.2.7.4 Mounting Standards;347
12.2.8;8.2.8 Polishing;347
12.2.9;8.2.9 Etching;348
12.2.10;8.2.10 Coating;348
12.3;8.3 Building Materials;349
12.3.1;8.3.1 Preparation of Cement Paste, Mortar, and Concrete Samples;349
12.3.1.1;8.3.1.1 Dry Potting;349
12.3.1.2;8.3.1.2 Wet Potting;349
12.3.2;8.3.2 Cutting and Grinding;350
12.3.3;8.3.3 Polishing;350
12.3.4;8.3.4 Impregnation Techniques;351
12.3.4.1;8.3.4.1 Epoxy Impregnation;351
12.3.4.2;8.3.4.2 Dye Impregnation Method;351
12.3.4.3;8.3.4.3 Impregnation by Wood´s Metal;351
12.3.4.4;8.3.4.4 High-Pressure Epoxy Impregnation Method;351
12.3.5;8.3.5 Drying the Specimen;352
12.3.6;8.3.6 Coating the Specimen;352
12.3.7;8.3.7 Cleaning the Surface of the Specimen;352
12.4;8.4 Polymers;352
12.4.1;8.4.1 Types of Polymers;353
12.4.1.1;8.4.1.1 Thermoplastics;353
12.4.1.2;8.4.1.2 Thermosets;354
12.4.1.3;8.4.1.3 Rubbers and Elastomers;354
12.4.2;8.4.2 Morphology of Polymers;354
12.4.2.1;8.4.2.1 Amorphous Polymers;354
12.4.2.2;8.4.2.2 Semicrystalline Polymers;355
12.4.3;8.4.3 Problems Associated with the SEM of Polymers;355
12.4.3.1;8.4.3.1 Radiation Sensitivity of Polymers;355
12.4.3.2;8.4.3.2 Low Contrast of Polymers;356
12.4.3.3;8.4.3.3 Charging;357
12.4.3.4;8.4.3.4 Degraded EDS or WDS Spectrum;357
12.4.4;8.4.4 General Aspects in Polymers Preparation for SEM;357
12.4.5;8.4.5 Sample Preparation Techniques for Polymers;358
12.4.5.1;8.4.5.1 Cutting and Sectioning;358
12.4.5.2;8.4.5.2 Microtomy of Polymers;358
12.4.5.3;8.4.5.3 Peel-Back Method;359
12.4.6;8.4.6 Devices Used in Microtomy;359
12.4.6.1;8.4.6.1 Microtome;359
12.4.6.2;8.4.6.2 Ultramicrotome;359
12.4.6.3;8.4.6.3 Cryo-microtome and Cryo-ultramicrotome;359
12.4.7;8.4.7 Sample Preparation Procedure for Polymers;360
12.4.7.1;8.4.7.1 Mounting of Polymer Samples;360
12.4.7.2;8.4.7.2 Grinding of Polymers;361
12.4.7.3;8.4.7.3 Polishing of Polymers;361
12.4.7.4;8.4.7.4 Etching of Polymers;362
12.4.7.4.1;Solvent and Chemical Etching;363
12.4.7.4.2;Acid Etching;363
12.4.7.4.3;Permanganate Etching;363
12.4.7.4.4;Plasma and Ion Etching;363
12.4.7.4.5;Focused Ion Beam Etching;363
12.4.7.4.6;Replication of Polymers;364
12.4.7.4.7;Staining of Polymers;365
12.4.7.4.8;Conductive Coatings;365
12.4.7.5;8.4.7.5 Cryogenic and Drying Methods;366
12.4.7.6;8.4.7.6 Simple Freezing Methods;366
12.4.7.7;8.4.7.7 Freeze-Drying;366
12.4.7.8;8.4.7.8 Critical Point Drying;367
12.4.7.9;8.4.7.9 Yielding and Fracture;367
12.5;8.5 Biological Materials;368
12.5.1;8.5.1 Fixation;369
12.5.1.1;8.5.1.1 Chemical Fixation;369
12.5.1.1.1;Formaldehyde (FA);370
12.5.1.1.2;Glutaraldehyde (GA);370
12.5.1.1.3;Osmium Tetroxide (OT);370
12.5.1.1.4;Protein Cross-linking Reagents;371
12.5.1.2;8.5.1.2 Physical Fixation;371
12.5.2;8.5.2 Examples of Biological Sample Preparation;371
12.5.2.1;8.5.2.1 Bone Tissue;371
12.5.2.2;8.5.2.2 Heart Tissue;372
12.5.2.3;8.5.2.3 Stem Cells;372
12.5.2.4;8.5.2.4 Bacteria;373
12.5.2.5;8.5.2.5 Insect;374
12.6;References;378
13;Questions/Answers;380
13.1;Chapter 1;380
13.2;Chapter 2;382
13.3;Chapter 3;388
13.4;Chapter 4;397
13.5;Chapter 5;400
13.6;Chapter 6;405
13.7;Chapter 7;408
13.8;Chapter 8;412
14;Index;416