Vázquez / Pallé The Earth as a Distant Planet

A Rosetta Stone for the Search of Earth-Like Worlds
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-1-4419-1684-6
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 422 Seiten

In The Earth as a Distant Planet, the authors become external observers of our solar system from a distance and try to determine how one can understand how Earth, the third in distance to the central star, is essentially unique and capable of sustaining life. The knowledge gained from this original perspective is then applied to the search for other planets outside the solar system, or exoplanets. Since the discovery in 1992 of the first exoplanet, the number of planet detections has increased exponentially and ambitious missions are already being planned for the future. The exploration of Earth and the rest of the rocky planets are Rosetta stones in classifying and understanding the multiplicity of planetary systems that exist in our galaxy. In time, statistics on the formation and evolution of exoplanets will be available and will provide vital information for solving some of the unanswered questions about the formation, as well as evolution of our own world and solar system.  Special attention is paid to the biosignatures (signs of life) detectable in the Earth's reflected spectra and the search for life in the universe. The authors are experts on the subject of extrasolar planets.  They provide an introductory but also very much up-to-date text, making this book suitable for researchers and for advanced students in astronomy and astrophysics.

The authors are researchers at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. M. Vázquez is also author of Ultraviolet Radiation in the Solar System and The Sun Recorded Through History.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Vázquez, M.

Pallé, E.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
2;Acronyms;9
3;Contents;11
4;1 Observing the Earth;16
4.1;1.1 The Exploration of Our Planet;16
4.2;1.2 First Observations of Our Planet from the Air;22
4.2.1;1.2.1 Early Balloon Pictures;22
4.2.2;1.2.2 The Space Research;24
4.2.2.1;1.2.2.1 The First Attempts;25
4.2.2.2;1.2.2.2 The Manned Flights;27
4.2.2.3;1.2.2.3 The Earth Observatory;31
4.2.2.4;1.2.2.4 Infrared Images;31
4.3;1.3 The Earth–Moon System;35
4.4;1.4 The Solar System;36
4.4.1;1.4.1 General Characteristics;37
4.4.2;1.4.2 A View from the Edge;38
4.4.3;1.4.3 Our Environment;40
4.4.3.1;1.4.3.1 Nearby Stars;40
4.4.3.2;1.4.3.2 The Gaseous and Dusty Neighbourhood;42
4.4.3.3;1.4.3.3 The Galaxy;45
4.5;References;46
5;2 The Earth in Time;49
5.1;2.1 The Earth at the Present Time;52
5.1.1;2.1.1 The Interior;53
5.1.1.1;2.1.1.1 Inner Core;55
5.1.1.2;2.1.1.2 Outer Core;55
5.1.1.3;2.1.1.3 Mantle;55
5.1.1.4;2.1.1.4 Lithosphere;56
5.1.1.5;2.1.1.5 Energy Budget;56
5.1.2;2.1.2 Plate Tectonics;58
5.1.3;2.1.3 The Atmosphere;61
5.1.4;2.1.4 Energy Balance of the Atmosphere;64
5.1.4.1;2.1.4.1 Albedo;64
5.1.4.2;2.1.4.2 The Planet's Mean Temperature;65
5.1.4.3;2.1.4.3 Greenhouse Gases;66
5.1.4.4;2.1.4.4 2D Models;67
5.2;2.2 The Precambrian Era (4,500–4,550 Ma BP);68
5.2.1;2.2.1 The Formation of the Earth: The Hadean Era;69
5.2.1.1;2.2.1.1 The Moon and the Earth Rotation;70
5.2.1.2;2.2.1.2 Late Heavy Bombardment;72
5.2.1.3;2.2.1.3 The Early Crust and Mantle;73
5.2.1.4;2.2.1.4 The Young and Faint Sun;75
5.2.2;2.2.2 The Archaean and Proterozoic Times;77
5.2.2.1;2.2.2.1 The Origin and Development of Life;77
5.2.2.2;2.2.2.2 The Carbon Dioxide Cycle;79
5.2.2.3;2.2.2.3 Sea-Floor Spreading and Continental Growth;81
5.2.2.4;2.2.2.4 Greenhouse Gases and Paleoclimate;85
5.2.2.5;2.2.2.5 Oxygen, Ozone and Ultraviolet Radiation;86
5.2.2.6;2.2.2.6 The Snowball Earth;90
5.3;2.3 The Phanerozoic Era;92
5.3.1;2.3.1 The Drift, Breakup and Assembly of the Continents;94
5.3.2;2.3.2 Supereruptions and Hot Spots;95
5.3.3;2.3.3 The Connection Temperature-Greenhouse Gases;96
5.3.4;2.3.4 Temporal Variations of the Magnetic Field;98
5.3.5;2.3.5 Mass Extinctions in the Fossil Record;99
5.3.5.1;2.3.5.1 Historical Introduction;99
5.3.5.2;2.3.5.2 Biological Extinctions During the Phanerozoic Era;101
5.3.5.3;2.3.5.3 The K/T Extinction;101
5.4;2.4 The Quaternary;103
5.4.1;2.4.1 The Ice Ages;104
5.4.2;2.4.2 The Present Warming: The Anthropocene;105
5.5;2.5 The Future of Earth;108
5.5.1;2.5.1 The End of Life;108
5.5.2;2.5.2 The End of the Earth;109
5.6;References;110
6;3 The Pale Blue Dot;120
6.1;3.1 Globally Integrated Observations of the Earth;120
6.1.1;3.1.1 Earth Orbiting Satellites;121
6.1.2;3.1.2 Observations from Long-range Spacecrafts;124
6.1.3;3.1.3 An Indirect View of the Earth: Earthshine;125
6.2;3.2 The Earth's Photometric Variability in Reflected Light;129
6.2.1;3.2.1 Observational Data;130
6.2.2;3.2.2 Reflectance Models;134
6.2.3;3.2.3 The Earth's Light Curves;136
6.2.4;3.2.4 The Rotational Period;137
6.2.5;3.2.5 Cloudiness and Apparent Rotation;140
6.2.6;3.2.6 Glint Scattering;141
6.3;3.3 Earth's Infrared Photometry;144
6.4;3.4 Spectroscopy of Planet Earth;147
6.4.1;3.4.1 The Visible Spectrum;148
6.4.2;3.4.2 The Infrared Spectrum;150
6.4.3;3.4.3 The Earth's Transmission Spectrum;152
6.5;3.5 Polarimetry of Planet Earth;156
6.5.1;3.5.1 Linear Polarization;156
6.5.2;3.5.2 Circular Polarization;158
6.6;References;159
7;4 The Outer Layers of the Earth;163
7.1;4.1 Temperature Profile and the Energy Balance;163
7.2;4.2 Stratosphere: The Ozone Layer;168
7.2.1;4.2.1 Natural Processes of Ozone Formation and Destruction;170
7.2.1.1;4.2.1.1 Ozone Formation;170
7.2.1.2;4.2.1.2 Ozone Destruction;170
7.2.1.3;4.2.1.3 Ozone Transport;171
7.3;4.3 Mesosphere;172
7.4;4.4 The Thermosphere;173
7.5;4.5 The Exosphere: Geocorona;174
7.6;4.6 Airglow;176
7.6.1;4.6.1 Nightglow;178
7.6.2;4.6.2 Dayglow;181
7.6.3;4.6.3 Twilight Airglow;182
7.7;4.7 The Ionosphere;183
7.7.1;4.7.1 General Structure;184
7.7.2;4.7.2 Ionosphere Indicators;188
7.7.3;4.7.3 Lightnings;190
7.8;4.8 The Magnetosphere;191
7.8.1;4.8.1 Description;191
7.8.2;4.8.2 Radiation Belts;192
7.8.3;4.8.3 Aurorae;194
7.9;4.9 Radio Emission of the Earth and Other Planets;195
7.10;4.10 The Earth in X-Rays;198
7.11;4.11 The Earth's Gamma Ray Emission;199
7.12;4.12 The Outer Layers of the Early Earth;200
7.13;References;202
8;5 Biosignatures and the Search for Life on Earth;208
8.1;5.1 The Physical Concept of Life;208
8.2;5.2 Astrobiology: New Perspectives for an Old Question;211
8.3;5.3 Requirements for Life;212
8.3.1;5.3.1 Biogenic Elements;212
8.3.2;5.3.2 A Solvent: Water;213
8.3.3;5.3.3 Energy Source;216
8.3.3.1;5.3.3.1 Solar Radiation: Photosynthesis ;216
8.3.3.2;5.3.3.2 Chemical Energy;218
8.4;5.4 Biosignatures on Present Earth;220
8.4.1;5.4.1 Spectral Biosignatures in the Atmosphere;220
8.4.1.1;5.4.1.1 Atmospheric Carbon dioxide, Water Vapour and Ozone: The Triple Fingerprint;221
8.4.1.2;5.4.1.2 Other Atmospheric Biosignatures;223
8.4.2;5.4.2 Chlorophyll and Other Spectral Biosignatures of the Planetary Surface: The Red Edge;224
8.4.3;5.4.3 Chirality and Polarization as Biosignatures;233
8.5;5.5 Biosignatures on Early-Earth;234
8.6;5.6 Life in the Universe;236
8.6.1;5.6.1 Circumstellar Habitable Zone;236
8.6.1.1;5.6.1.1 Stellar Constraints;237
8.6.1.2;5.6.1.2 M Stars and Tidal Locking;241
8.6.1.3;5.6.1.3 Planetary Constraints;242
8.6.1.4;5.6.1.4 The Continuously Habitable Zone;243
8.6.2;5.6.2 Additional Constraints for Habitability;243
8.6.2.1;5.6.2.1 Short-term Stellar Variability;243
8.6.2.2;5.6.2.2 Ultraviolet and Ionizing Radiation;244
8.6.3;5.6.3 Galactic Habitable Zone;245
8.7;5.7 Signatures of Technological Civilizations;246
8.7.1;5.7.1 Night Lights;247
8.7.2;5.7.2 Spectral Features;249
8.7.3;5.7.3 Artificial Radioemission;250
8.7.4;5.7.4 Nuclear Explosions;252
8.7.5;5.7.5 Extraterrestrial Pulses;254
8.8;References;254
9;6 Detecting Extrasolar Earth-like Planets;261
9.1;6.1 First Attempts to Discover Exoplanets;261
9.2;6.2 The Mass Limit: From Brown Dwarfs to Giant Planets;263
9.2.1;6.2.1 The Brown Dwarf Desert;268
9.3;6.3 The Detection of Earth-like Planets: A Complex Problem;268
9.3.1;6.3.1 Brightness Ratio;268
9.3.2;6.3.2 Angular Distance;270
9.4;6.4 Methods for the Detection of Exoplanets;271
9.4.1;6.4.1 Indirect Detection of Exoplanets;273
9.4.1.1;6.4.1.1 Astrometry;273
9.4.1.2;6.4.1.2 Radial Velocity;274
9.4.1.3;6.4.1.3 Pulsar Timing;275
9.4.1.4;6.4.1.4 Microlensing Events;277
9.4.1.5;6.4.1.5 Transits;279
9.4.1.6;6.4.1.6 Differential Spectro-photometry During Transits;282
9.4.1.7;6.4.1.7 Miscellaneous Indirect Detection Methods;284
9.4.2;6.4.2 Direct Observations of Exoplanets;285
9.4.2.1;6.4.2.1 Coronagraphy;287
9.4.2.2;6.4.2.2 Nulling Interferometry;289
9.4.2.3;6.4.2.3 Polarimetry;289
9.5;6.5 The Next 20 Years;290
9.6;References;291
10;7 The Worlds Out There;298
10.1;7.1 Definition of a Planet;298
10.2;7.2 Our Solar System;300
10.2.1;7.2.1 General Facts;300
10.2.2;7.2.2 Chemical Abundances in the Solar System;301
10.2.3;7.2.3 Giant Planets;302
10.2.4;7.2.4 Terrestrial Planets;303
10.2.5;7.2.5 Dwarf Planets and Other Minor Bodies;304
10.2.5.1;7.2.5.1 Asteroid Belt;304
10.2.5.2;7.2.5.2 Kuiper Belt;306
10.2.5.3;7.2.5.3 Oort Cloud;307
10.3;7.3 Planetary Atmospheres;308
10.4;7.4 Statistical Properties of the Extrasolar Giant Planets;311
10.4.1;7.4.1 Mass Distribution;311
10.4.2;7.4.2 Hot Jupiters;311
10.4.3;7.4.3 Eccentric Planets;314
10.4.4;7.4.4 Role of the Metallicity;314
10.4.5;7.4.5 Stellar Masses;315
10.5;7.5 Types of Terrestrial Planets;316
10.5.1;7.5.1 Rocky Planets;317
10.5.2;7.5.2 Super-Earths;318
10.5.2.1;7.5.2.1 Internal Structure;318
10.5.2.2;7.5.2.2 Surface Appearance and Habitability;321
10.5.3;7.5.3 Carbon–Oxygen Ratio: The Carbon Planets;323
10.5.4;7.5.4 Super-Mercuries;324
10.5.5;7.5.5 Planets Around Pulsars in Metal-Poor Environments;326
10.5.6;7.5.6 Terrestrial Planets Around Giant Planets:The Rocky Moons;326
10.5.7;7.5.7 Free-Floating Planets ;327
10.6;7.6 Characterization of Exoplanets;328
10.6.1;7.6.1 Mass–Radius Relationships;328
10.6.2;7.6.2 Atmospheres of Exoplanets;331
10.6.2.1;7.6.2.1 HD 189733b;332
10.6.2.2;7.6.2.2 HD 209458b;332
10.6.2.3;7.6.2.3 Terrestrial Planets;334
10.6.3;7.6.3 Radio Emission of Exoplanets;335
10.7;7.7 Terraformed Planets;335
10.8;7.8 Expect the Unexpected;336
10.9;References;337
11;8 Extrasolar Planetary Systems;345
11.1;8.1 The Origin of the Solar System: Early Attempts;345
11.1.1;8.1.1 Nebular Theory;345
11.1.2;8.1.2 Catastrophic Theories;347
11.2;8.2 Formation of Planetary Systems;348
11.2.1;8.2.1 Stellar Formation;348
11.2.2;8.2.2 The Early Accretion Phase;350
11.2.3;8.2.3 The Protoplanetary and Debris Disks;351
11.2.4;8.2.4 Formation of Giant Planets;354
11.2.5;8.2.5 Formation of Terrestrial Planets;356
11.3;8.3 Planetary Orbits;358
11.3.1;8.3.1 Basic Orbital Elements;358
11.3.2;8.3.2 Keplerian Orbits;360
11.3.3;8.3.3 Harmony and Chaos;363
11.3.3.1;8.3.3.1 Historical Background;363
11.3.4;8.3.4 Relevant Parameters of Dynamical Stability;366
11.3.4.1;8.3.4.1 Uncertainty;367
11.3.5;8.3.5 Resonances in Planetary Systems;368
11.3.5.1;8.3.5.1 Laplace Resonances;368
11.3.5.2;8.3.5.2 Kirkwood Gaps;369
11.3.5.3;8.3.5.3 Spin–Orbit Resonance;370
11.3.6;8.3.6 Lagrangian Points;371
11.4;8.4 The Dynamically Habitable Zone;372
11.5;8.5 Architecture of Planetary Systems;375
11.5.1;8.5.1 Systems with Hot Jupiters: The Planetary Migration;377
11.5.1.1;8.5.1.1 Planetesimal-driven Migration;377
11.5.1.2;8.5.1.2 Planet–Planet Scattering;377
11.5.1.3;8.5.1.3 The LHB Event and the Nice Model;378
11.5.1.4;8.5.1.4 Interaction with a Distant Companion Star;380
11.5.1.5;8.5.1.5 Gas Disk Migration;380
11.5.1.6;8.5.1.6 Stopping the Migration;381
11.5.1.7;8.5.1.7 Survival of Terrestrial Planets;382
11.5.2;8.5.2 Binary Systems;384
11.5.3;8.5.3 Multiple Planetary Systems;385
11.5.3.1;8.5.3.1 Gliese 581;385
11.5.3.2;8.5.3.2 Gliese 876;386
11.5.3.3;8.5.3.3 Upsilon Andromeda (HD 9826);387
11.5.3.4;8.5.3.4 55 Cancri (HD 75732);387
11.5.3.5;8.5.3.5 47 UMa (HD 95128);389
11.5.3.6;8.5.3.6 HD 69830;389
11.5.3.7;8.5.3.7 HD160691 ( Arae);389
11.5.3.8;8.5.3.8 HD 40307;390
11.6;8.6 Violence and Harmony;391
11.7;References;391
12;9 Is Our Environment Special?;399
12.1;9.1 Is the Sun Anomalous?;400
12.1.1;9.1.1 Singularity;400
12.1.2;9.1.2 Mass;401
12.1.3;9.1.3 Location;402
12.1.4;9.1.4 Age;403
12.1.5;9.1.5 Chemical Composition: Metallicity;404
12.1.6;9.1.6 Magnetic Activity;405
12.1.7;9.1.7 Solar Analogs;407
12.2;9.2 Is the Solar System Unique?;408
12.2.1;9.2.1 Nature vs. Nurture;408
12.2.1.1;9.2.1.1 Formation;409
12.2.1.2;9.2.1.2 Stellar Encounters;410
12.2.1.3;9.2.1.3 Gravitational Interactions: LHB Events;411
12.2.1.4;9.2.1.4 Mercury: The Achilles Heel;413
12.2.2;9.2.2 Debris Disks;413
12.2.3;9.2.3 The Energetic Environment;414
12.2.4;9.2.4 Solar System Analogs;415
12.3;9.3 Is the Earth Something Special?;416
12.3.1;9.3.1 Habitability;416
12.3.2;9.3.2 Variations of Orbital Parameters;417
12.3.3;9.3.3 Presence of a Large Satellite;418
12.4;9.4 The Ultimate Factor: Life;420
12.5;References;421
13;Index;427