Fiberglass and Glass Technology

Energy-Friendly Compositions and Applications
1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-1-4419-0736-3
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 474 Seiten

Fiberglass and Glass Technology: Energy-Friendly Compositions and Applications provides a detailed overview of fiber, float and container glass technology with special emphasis on energy- and environmentally-friendly compositions, applications and manufacturing practices which have recently become available and continue to emerge. Energy-friendly compositions are variants of incumbent fiberglass and glass compositions that are obtained by the reformulation of incumbent compositions to reduce the viscosity and thereby the energy demand. Environmentally-friendly compositions are variants of incumbent fiber, float and container glass compositions that are obtained by the reformulation of incumbent compositions to reduce environmentally harmful emissions from their melts. Energy- and environmentally-friendly compositions are expected to become a key factor in the future for the fiberglass and glass industries. This book consists of two complementary sections: continuous glass fiber technology and soda-lime-silica glass technology. Important topics covered include: o Commercial and experimental compositions and products o Design of energy- and environmentally-friendly compositions o Emerging glass melting technologies including plasma melting o Fiberglass composite design and engineering o Emerging fiberglass applications and markets Fiberglass and Glass Technology: Energy-Friendly Compositions and Applications is written for researchers and engineers seeking a modern understanding of glass technology and the development of future products that are more energy- and environmentally-friendly than current products.

Dr. Wallenberger completed his undergraduate studies in Chemistry at the University in Graz, Austria (1954) and pursued graduate research at Fordham University in New York, where he received his M.S. degree (1956) in pilot process research and his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry (1958) in the chemistry of polycyclic aromatic carbon precursors. He was an Instructor in Chemistry at Fordham (1957-58) and a Research Fellow at Harvard (1958-59). He joined Du Pont Fibers, Pioneering Research Laboratory, in 1959, where he studied, for more than three decades, the relationships between structures, properties and value-in-use of new materials, and contributed to the commercialization of new fibers, polymers and composites through intrapreneurial research, project management and technology transfer. Dr. Wallenberger retired from DuPont in 1992, became a Research Professor (Materials Science) at the University of Illinois in Urbana-Champaign in 1992, a Visiting Professor (Textiles) at the University of California in Davis in 1994. He joined PPG in Pittsburgh as Staff Scientist in 1995. Dr. Wallenberger is a fiber scientist, an expert in the fields of advanced glass, ceramic and carbon fibers, single crystal fibers, whiskers and nanotubes, natural fibers, advanced polymers and fiber-reinforced composites. He is also a specialist in technology assessment and technology transfer. At the University of Illinois, he jointly taught successive project-based team courses with a member of the business faculty on the principles of organizing new high tech businesses. At the University of California he taught textile fibers and manufacture, and a University-wide course on the benefits of plastics to the society and their impact on the environment. Between 1992 and 1995, he was a consultant and assisted entrepreneurial start-up businesses with organizational advice, business strategy and license negotiations. Since 1957, Dr. Wallenberger has contributed 152 publications including journal articles, books, book chapters and patents to the scientific and technical literature. His publications appeared in selected technical journals, including Science, the Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, the American Ceramic Society, Applied Physics, Materials Letters, Materials Processing and Manufacturing Science, Chemical Vapor Deposition, Angewandte Chemie, Organic Chemistry and Polymer Chemistry. More recently, his publications described the design of environmentally friendly fiberglass compositions (Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, 2004, Ceramic Transactions, 2004, and Glastechnische Berichte - Glass Science and Technology, 2004), the structure of glass fibers (Science, 1995), rapid prototyping directly from the vapor phase (Science, 1994), pure carbon fibers from the vapor phase (Science, 1993) and melt spinning of amorphous alumina fibers (Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 1992). Ten of his original journal papers were reprinted by other journals since 1962, mostly in the form of a translation into another language. Dr. Wallenberger has published three books, 'Natural Fibers, Polymers and Composites' (Kluwer, 2003), 'Advanced Fibers, Plastics and Composites' (MRS, 2002) and 'Advanced Inorganic Fibers' (Kluwer, 1999). He wrote a chapter on 'Glass Fibers' (Handbook on Ceramics and Glasses, 2005), two chapters on 'Reinforcing Fibers' (ASM Composites Handbook, 2001), a survey of 'Melt-Spinning of Amorphous Alumna Fibers' (American Ceramic Society Bulletin, 1991) and the first review of 'The Chemistry of Heat Resistant Polymer Fibers' (Angewandte Chemie, 1964). Among many professional honors, Dr. Wallenberger received the Environmental Respect Award from Du Pont. He is a Fellow of the American Ceramic Society, and a member of the American Chemical Society, the Material Research Society, and the Association of Harvard Chemists. Dr. Paul A. Bingham received a BEng (Hons) in 1995 from the Department of Engineering Materials at the University of Sheffield. Also at the Department of Engineering Materials, one of the world's premier glass research groups, he subsequently investigated the optical properties, the redox behavior, and the structure of iron-containing silicate glasses, and received his PhD in 1999. Between 1999 and 2003 he was a Technologist at Glass Technology Services Ltd (GTS), the research arm of the British Glass Manufacturers Confederation, and carried out a wide range of research and project management functions related to the development of new glasses.  He reformulated existing container glasses for environmental benefit and energy reduction, and giver glass compostions which he developed have achieved full-scale production.  In 2004, he took a position as Postdoctoral Research Associate at the Immobilization Science Laboratory (ISL), University of Sheffield, where he researches composition-structure-property relations for a large range of glass systems with the aim of providing environmental benefit.  He has developed novel silicate, borosilicate, phosphate and borophosphate glasses with potential applications in waste immobilization and commercial glassmaking. Dr. Bingham has nine publications in refereed journals including several papers in the field of glasses for environmental benefit and an invited review paper on the vitrification of toxic wastes.  He has also published several conference papers and other articles in the field.  Dr. Bingham is a member of the Society of Glass Technology, where he is Secretary of the Basic Science and Technology Committee.  He has also undertaken consultancy work for the optical communications industry.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
2;About the Editors;7
3;Contents;9
4;Contributors;15
5;Part I Continuous Glass Fibers;16
5.1;1 Commercial and Experimental Glass Fibers;17
5.1.1;1.1 Overview: Glass Melt and Fiber Formation;17
5.1.1.1;1.1.1 Principles of Glass Melt Formation;17
5.1.1.1.1;1.1.1.1 Important Glass Melt Properties;18
5.1.1.1.2;1.1.1.2 Behavior of Strong Viscous Melts;22
5.1.1.1.3;1.1.1.3 Behavior of Fragile Viscous Melts;22
5.1.1.1.4;1.1.1.4 Behavior of Inviscid Glass Melts;23
5.1.1.2;1.1.2 Principles of Glass Fiber Formation;23
5.1.1.2.1;1.1.2.1 Generic Fiber-Forming Processes;23
5.1.1.2.2;1.1.2.2 Fibers from Strong Melts and Solutions;24
5.1.1.2.3;1.1.2.3 Fibers from Fragile and Inviscid Melts;25
5.1.1.3;1.1.3 Structure of Melts and Fibers;25
5.1.1.3.1;1.1.3.1 From Glass Melts to Fibers;25
5.1.1.3.2;1.1.3.2 Melt Structure vs. Liquidus;26
5.1.1.3.3;1.1.3.3 Fiber Structure vs. Modulus;26
5.1.1.3.4;1.1.3.4 Fiber Structure vs. Strength;28
5.1.1.4;1.1.4 Summary and Conclusions;29
5.1.2;1.2 Silica Fibers, Sliver, and Fabrics (95-100% SiO2);29
5.1.2.1;1.2.1 Ultrapure Silica Fibers (99.99-99.999% SiO2);29
5.1.2.1.1;1.2.1.1 Downdrawing from Strong Viscous Melts at the Preform Surface;29
5.1.2.1.2;1.2.1.2 Ultrapure Silica Fibers from Sol--Gels;32
5.1.2.2;1.2.2 Pure Silica Sliver and Fabrics (95.5099.50 SiO2);33
5.1.2.2.1;1.2.2.1 Pure Silica Sliver from Aqueous Solution;33
5.1.2.2.2;1.2.2.2 Acid-Leached E- and A-Glass Fabrics (95.0095.50 SiO2);35
5.1.2.3;1.2.3 Summary and Conclusions;36
5.1.3;1.3 Silicate Glass Fibers (50–70% SiO2, 1–25% Al2O3);37
5.1.3.1;1.3.1 Forming Glass Fibers from Strong Viscous Melts;37
5.1.3.1.1;1.3.1.1 Critical Properties of Strong Viscous Melts;37
5.1.3.1.2;1.3.1.2 Commercial Manufacturing Process;37
5.1.3.1.3;1.3.1.3 Experimental Plasma Melt Process;40
5.1.3.1.4;1.3.1.4 Modeling of Glass Fiber Drawing;42
5.1.3.2;1.3.2 General-Purpose Silicate Glass Fibers;42
5.1.3.2.1;1.3.2.1 Borosilicate E-Glass Fibers;42
5.1.3.2.2;1.3.2.2 E-Glass Properties and Fiber Structures;45
5.1.3.2.3;1.3.2.3 Commercial E-Glass Products and Applications;47
5.1.3.3;1.3.3 Special-Purpose Silicate Glass Fibers;48
5.1.3.3.1;1.3.3.1 Designations of Special-Purpose Fibers;48
5.1.3.3.2;1.3.3.2 High-Strength--High-Temperature Glass Fibers;48
5.1.3.3.3;1.3.3.3 High-Modulus--High-Temperature Glass Fibers;53
5.1.3.3.4;1.3.3.4 Ultrahigh-Modulus Glass Ceramic Fibers;54
5.1.3.3.5;1.3.3.5 Glass Fibers with High Chemical Stability;58
5.1.3.3.6;1.3.3.6 Other Special-Purpose Glass Fibers;63
5.1.3.4;1.3.4 Non-round, Bicomponent and Hollow Silicate Fibers;68
5.1.3.4.1;1.3.4.1 Glass Fibers with Non-round Cross Sections;68
5.1.3.4.2;1.3.4.2 Bicomponent Silicate Glass Fibers;70
5.1.3.5;1.3.5 Summary and Conclusions;74
5.1.4;1.4 Aluminate Glass Fibers (=81% Al2O3, =50% SiO2);74
5.1.4.1;1.4.1 Glass Fibers from Fragile Melts (25–50% Al2O3,10–4% SiO2);74
5.1.4.1.1;1.4.1.1 Downdrawing from Supercooled Melts;74
5.1.4.1.2;1.4.1.2 Updrawing from Supercooled Melts;76
5.1.4.1.3;1.4.1.3 Quaternary Calcium Aluminate Fibers;78
5.1.4.1.4;1.4.1.4 Hybrid Fiber-Forming Processes;79
5.1.4.2;1.4.2 Glass Fibers from Inviscid Melts (55–81% Al2O3, 4–0% SiO2);80
5.1.4.2.1;1.4.2.1 Principles of Fiber Formation from Inviscid Melts;80
5.1.4.2.2;1.4.2.2 Containerless, Laser Heating (CLH) Process;82
5.1.4.2.3;1.4.2.3 Inviscid Melt Spinning (IMS) Process;84
5.1.4.2.4;1.4.2.4 Rapid Jet Solidification (RJS) Processes;90
5.1.5;1.5 Appendix: Single-Crystal Alumina Fibers;91
5.1.5.1;1.5.1 Single-Crystal Fibers from Inviscid Melts;91
5.1.5.1.1;1.5.1.1 Edge-Defined Film-Fed Growth;92
5.1.5.1.2;1.5.1.2 Laser-Heated Float Zone Growth;92
5.1.5.2;1.5.2 The Future of Alumina and Aluminate Fibers;96
5.1.5.2.1;1.5.2.1 Amorphous Alumina vs. Single-Crystal Sapphire Fibers;96
5.1.5.2.2;1.5.2.2 Amorphous YAG vs. Single-Crystal YAG Fibers;97
5.1.5.2.3;1.5.2.3 Summary, Conclusions, and Outlook;97
5.1.6;References;98
5.2;2 Design of Energy-Friendly Glass Fibers;105
5.2.1;2.1 Principles of Designing New Compositions;105
5.2.1.1;2.1.1 Compositional, Energy, and Environmental Issues;105
5.2.1.1.1;2.1.1.1 Environmental Regulations and Emission Control;106
5.2.1.1.2;2.1.1.2 Industry Standards and Specifications;106
5.2.1.2;2.1.2 Trend Line Design of New Fiberglass Compositions;108
5.2.1.2.1;2.1.2.1 Glass Databases and Compositional Models;108
5.2.1.2.2;2.1.2.2 Principles of Trend Line Design;108
5.2.1.2.3;2.1.2.3 Design Required Melt Properties;109
5.2.1.2.4;2.1.2.4 Compositions, Energy Use, and Emissions;112
5.2.2;2.2 Energy-Friendly Aluminosilicate Glass Fibers;113
5.2.2.1;2.2.1 New Energy-Friendly E-Glass Variants with < 2% B2O3;113
5.2.2.1.1;2.2.1.1 Ternary SiO2-Al2O3-CaO Phase Diagram;114
5.2.2.1.2;2.2.1.2 Quaternary SiO2-Al2O3-CaO-MgO Phase Diagram;116
5.2.2.2;2.2.2 New Energy-Friendly E-Glass Variants with 2–10% B2O3;125
5.2.2.2.1;2.2.2.1 Quaternary SiO2-Al2O3-CaO-B2O3 Phase Diagram;125
5.2.2.2.2;2.2.2.2 Trend Line Design of Energy-Friendly Variants;125
5.2.2.2.3;2.2.2.3 Effect of B2O3 at the Same Delta Temperature;127
5.2.2.2.4;2.2.2.4 Summary and Conclusions;127
5.2.2.3;2.2.3 New Energy- and Environmentally Friendly ECR-Glass Variants;128
5.2.2.3.1;2.2.3.1 Commercial Corrosion-Resistant ECR-Glass;128
5.2.2.3.2;2.2.3.2 Fluorine- and B2O3-Free E-Glass with ZnO, TiO2, and/or Li2O;128
5.2.3;2.3 Energy-Friendly SodaLimeSilica Glass Fibers;130
5.2.3.1;2.3.1 New Energy-Friendly A- and C-Glass Compositions;131
5.2.3.1.1;2.3.1.1 Fluorine and Boron-Free A-Glass;131
5.2.3.1.2;2.3.1.2 Fluorine-Free C-Glass with 5% B2O3;131
5.2.3.1.3;2.3.1.3 Future Soda--Lime--Silica Glass Fibers and Glasses;133
5.2.4;2.4 Summary, Conclusions, and Path Forward;133
5.2.5;References;135
5.3;3 Composite Design and Engineering;138
5.3.1;3.1 Introduction;138
5.3.1.1;3.1.1 Continuous Fibers for Reinforcement;138
5.3.1.2;3.1.2 E-Glass Fibers;140
5.3.1.3;3.1.3 Fiberglass Manufacturing;141
5.3.1.4;3.1.4 Fiberglass Size;142
5.3.1.5;3.1.5 Composite Mechanical Properties;143
5.3.1.5.1;3.1.5.1 Unidirectional Continuous Fibers;144
5.3.1.5.2;3.1.5.2 Bidirectional (Orthotropic) Reinforcement;146
5.3.1.5.3;3.1.5.3 Random Short Fibers;147
5.3.1.5.4;3.1.5.4 Test Methods;150
5.3.1.6;3.1.6 Products;151
5.3.2;3.2 Thermoset Composite Material;154
5.3.2.1;3.2.1 Liquid Resin Processing Techniques;155
5.3.2.1.1;3.2.1.1 Hand Lay-Up (HLU);156
5.3.2.1.2;3.2.1.2 Spray Deposition;156
5.3.2.1.3;3.2.1.3 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM);156
5.3.2.1.4;3.2.1.4 Reinforced Reaction Injection Molding (RRIM);157
5.3.2.1.5;3.2.1.5 Filament Winding;157
5.3.2.1.6;3.2.1.6 Centrifugal Molding;157
5.3.2.1.7;3.2.1.7 Pultrusion;158
5.3.2.1.8;3.2.1.8 Continuous Laminating;158
5.3.2.1.9;3.2.1.9 Pre-combined Materials;159
5.3.2.2;3.2.2 Thermosetting Matrix Resins;161
5.3.2.2.1;3.2.2.1 Unsaturated Polyester (UP) Resins;161
5.3.2.2.2;3.2.2.2 Epoxy (EP) Resins;163
5.3.2.2.3;3.2.2.3 Vinyl Ester (VE) Resins;164
5.3.2.2.4;3.2.2.4 Phenolic (PF) Resins;165
5.3.2.2.5;3.2.2.5 Polyurethanes (PUR);166
5.3.2.2.6;3.2.2.6 Silicone (SI) Resins;166
5.3.2.3;3.2.3 Fillers;167
5.3.2.4;3.2.4 Release Agents;168
5.3.3;3.3 Reinforced Thermoplastic Materials;169
5.3.3.1;3.3.1 Introduction;169
5.3.3.2;3.3.2 Semifinished Materials Based on Thermoplastics;171
5.3.3.2.1;3.3.2.1 Reinforced Thermoplastic Compounds (RTP);171
5.3.3.2.2;3.3.2.2 Glass Mat Thermoplastic (GMT) and Long Fiber Thermoplastic (LFT);172
5.3.3.2.3;3.3.2.3 Mechanical Properties of Compounds;173
5.3.3.2.4;3.3.2.4 Semicrystalline Resins;177
5.3.3.2.5;3.3.2.5 Amorphous Resins;178
5.3.3.2.6;3.3.2.6 Heat-Resistant Polymers (HT);179
5.3.3.2.7;3.3.2.7 Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCPs);180
5.3.4;3.4 Composites for Wind Turbines;181
5.3.4.1;3.4.1 Introduction;181
5.3.4.2;3.4.2 Raw Materials;182
5.3.4.3;3.4.3 Blade-Manufacturing Techniques;182
5.3.4.4;3.4.4 Blade Design Methodologies;183
5.3.5;References;185
5.4;4 Glass Fibers for Printed Circuit Boards;187
5.4.1;4.1 Introduction;187
5.4.1.1;4.1.1 Printed Circuit Board Requirements and Their Implications for Fiberglass;188
5.4.1.2;4.1.2 Fiberglass' Role in PCB Construction;189
5.4.1.3;4.1.3 Electrical Aspects;191
5.4.1.3.1;4.1.3.1 Dielectric Constant;191
5.4.1.3.2;4.1.3.2 Dielectric Loss;192
5.4.1.3.3;4.1.3.3 Hollow Filaments;193
5.4.1.4;4.1.4 Structural Aspects;193
5.4.1.4.1;4.1.4.1 Mechanical Strength;194
5.4.1.4.2;4.1.4.2 Elastic Modulus;194
5.4.1.4.3;4.1.4.3 Thermal Expansion;194
5.4.1.4.4;4.1.4.4 Upper Use Temperature;195
5.4.1.4.5;4.1.4.5 Weave and Fabric Construction;196
5.4.2;4.2 Glass Compositional Families;196
5.4.2.1;4.2.1 Improvements Initially Based on E-Glass;196
5.4.2.1.1;4.2.1.1 E-Glass -- The Industry Standard;197
5.4.2.1.2;4.2.1.2 Improving Dielectric Properties of E-Glass;198
5.4.2.1.3;4.2.1.3 Challenges and Limitations;199
5.4.2.2;4.2.2 D-Glass and Its Compositional Improvements;200
5.4.2.2.1;4.2.2.1 D-Glass;200
5.4.2.2.2;4.2.2.2 Improvements Based on D-Glass;201
5.4.2.2.3;4.2.2.3 Challenges and Limitations;202
5.4.3;4.3 Future Needs of the PCB Market;203
5.4.3.1;4.3.1 The Electronics Manufacturer's Roadmap;203
5.4.3.2;4.3.2 What This Means for the Board and Yarn Makers;204
5.4.4;References;207
5.5;5 High-Strength Glass Fibers and Markets;209
5.5.1;5.1 Attributes of High-Strength Glass;209
5.5.1.1;5.1.1 Strength;210
5.5.1.2;5.1.2 Elastic Modulus;215
5.5.1.3;5.1.3 Thermal Stability;217
5.5.2;5.2 Glass Compositional Families;218
5.5.2.1;5.2.1 S-Glass;219
5.5.2.2;5.2.2 R-Glass;220
5.5.2.3;5.2.3 Other High-Strength Glasses;221
5.5.3;5.3 High-Strength Glass Fibers in Perspective;222
5.5.3.1;5.3.1 The Competitive Material Landscape;222
5.5.3.1.1;5.3.1.1 Carbon Fibers;224
5.5.3.1.2;5.3.1.2 Polymer Fibers;224
5.5.3.1.3;5.3.1.3 The Importance of Specific Properties;226
5.5.3.2;5.3.2 Inherent Advantages of Continuous Glass Fibers;227
5.5.4;5.4 Markets and Applications;227
5.5.4.1;5.4.1 Defense -- Hard Composite Armor;228
5.5.4.1.1;5.4.1.1 Application Overview;228
5.5.4.1.2;5.4.1.2 Critical Fitness for Use Properties;229
5.5.4.1.3;5.4.1.3 Market Trends and Future Needs;230
5.5.4.2;5.4.2 Aerospace -- Rotors and Interiors;230
5.5.4.2.1;5.4.2.1 Application Overview;230
5.5.4.2.2;5.4.2.2 Critical Fitness for Use Properties;230
5.5.4.2.3;5.4.2.3 Market Trends and Future Needs;231
5.5.4.3;5.4.3 Automotive -- Belts, Hoses, and Mufflers;232
5.5.4.3.1;5.4.3.1 Application Overview;232
5.5.4.3.2;5.4.3.2 Critical Fitness for Use Properties;232
5.5.4.3.3;5.4.3.3 Market Trends and Future Needs;233
5.5.4.4;5.4.4 Industrial Reinforcements -- Pressure Vessels;233
5.5.4.4.1;5.4.4.1 Selected Application Overview;233
5.5.4.4.2;5.4.4.2 Critical Fitness for Use Properties;234
5.5.4.4.3;5.4.4.3 Market Trends and Future Needs;234
5.5.5;5.5 Concluding Remarks;234
5.5.6;References;235
6;Part II SodaLimeSilica Glasses;238
6.1;6 Compositions of Industrial Glasses;239
6.1.1;6.1 Guidelines for Industrial Glass Composition Selection;239
6.1.1.1;6.1.1 Economics;240
6.1.1.2;6.1.2 Demands on the Glass Melt;240
6.1.1.3;6.1.3 Meltability;242
6.1.1.4;6.1.4 Workability;243
6.1.1.5;6.1.5 Choice of Raw Materials;245
6.1.1.6;6.1.6 Cullet Effect -- Glass Melt Production Heat;246
6.1.1.7;6.1.7 Glass Refining;247
6.1.2;6.2 Industrial Glass Compositions;250
6.1.2.1;6.2.1 Historical Development;250
6.1.2.2;6.2.2 Flat Glass;252
6.1.2.3;6.2.3 Container Glass;255
6.1.2.4;6.2.4 Lead-Free Utility Glass;260
6.1.2.5;6.2.5 Technical Glass;263
6.1.2.6;6.2.6 Lead Crystal;269
6.1.2.7;6.2.7 Colored Glasses;271
6.1.3;6.3 Example Glass Compositions;271
6.1.3.1;6.3.1 Perspectives;271
6.1.3.2;6.3.2 Practical Examples of Container Glass Batch Charge;272
6.1.4;References;276
6.2;7 Design of New Energy-Friendly Compositions;277
6.2.1;7.1 Introduction;277
6.2.2;7.2 Design Requirements;278
6.2.2.1;7.2.1 Commercial Glass Compositions;279
6.2.3;7.3 Environmental Issues;279
6.2.3.1;7.3.1 Specific Energy Consumption;279
6.2.3.1.1;7.3.1.1 Energy Efficiency;279
6.2.3.2;7.3.2 Atmospheric Emission Limits;281
6.2.3.3;7.3.3 Pollution Prevention and Control;281
6.2.3.3.1;7.3.3.1 Furnace Design;281
6.2.3.3.2;7.3.3.2 Carbon Dioxide;283
6.2.3.3.3;7.3.3.3 Oxides of Nitrogen;283
6.2.3.3.4;7.3.3.4 Oxides of Sulfur;285
6.2.3.3.5;7.3.3.5 Volatilization and Particulates;286
6.2.4;7.4 Fundamental Glass Properties;288
6.2.4.1;7.4.1 Viscosity--Temperature Relationship;289
6.2.4.1.1;7.4.1.1 Viscosity Models;291
6.2.4.2;7.4.2 Devitrification and Crystal Growth;291
6.2.4.2.1;7.4.2.1 Methods of Avoiding Devitrification;292
6.2.4.2.2;7.4.2.2 Liquidus Models;294
6.2.4.3;7.4.3 Conductivity and Heat Transfer;296
6.2.4.3.1;7.4.3.1 Specific Heat Capacity;296
6.2.4.3.2;7.4.3.2 Thermal Conductivity and Optical Properties;297
6.2.4.3.3;7.4.3.3 Electrical Properties;299
6.2.4.4;7.4.4 Interfaces, Surfaces, and Gases;301
6.2.4.4.1;7.4.4.1 Refining;301
6.2.4.4.2;7.4.4.2 Refractory Corrosion;303
6.2.4.4.3;7.4.4.3 Surface Energy;306
6.2.4.5;7.4.5 Chemical Durability;307
6.2.4.6;7.4.6 Density and Thermo-mechanical Properties;309
6.2.5;7.5 Design of New SLS Glasses;310
6.2.5.1;7.5.1 Batch Processing, Preheating, and Melting;310
6.2.5.2;7.5.2 Cullet;312
6.2.5.3;7.5.3 Silica, SiO2;314
6.2.5.3.1;7.5.3.1 SiO 2 Raw Materials;314
6.2.5.3.2;7.5.3.1 SiO2 Raw Materials;315
6.2.5.4;7.5.4 Soda, Na2O;315
6.2.5.4.1;7.5.4.1 Na2O Raw Materials;315
6.2.5.4.2;7.5.4.2 Na2O Effects on Glass Properties;317
6.2.5.5;7.5.5 Calcia, CaO;317
6.2.5.5.1;7.5.5.1 CaO Raw Materials;317
6.2.5.5.2;7.5.5.2 CaO Effects on Glass Properties;318
6.2.5.6;7.5.6 Magnesia, MgO;319
6.2.5.6.1;7.5.6.1 MgO Raw Materials;319
6.2.5.6.2;7.5.6.2 MgO Effects on Glass Properties;319
6.2.5.7;7.5.7 Alumina, Al2O3;320
6.2.5.7.1;7.5.7.1 Al2O3 Raw Materials;320
6.2.5.7.2;7.5.7.2 Al2O3 Effects on Glass Properties;321
6.2.5.8;7.5.8 Potassia, K2O;323
6.2.5.8.1;7.5.8.1 K2O Raw Materials;323
6.2.5.8.2;7.5.8.2 K2O Effects on Glass Properties;324
6.2.5.9;7.5.9 Lithia, Li2O;325
6.2.5.9.1;7.5.9.1 Li2O Raw Materials;325
6.2.5.9.2;7.5.9.2 Li2O Effects on Glass Properties;325
6.2.5.10;7.5.10 Boric Oxide, B2O3;326
6.2.5.10.1;7.5.10.1 B2O3 Raw Materials;326
6.2.5.10.2;7.5.10.2 B2O3 Effects on Glass Properties;327
6.2.5.11;7.5.11 Sulfate, SO3;328
6.2.5.12;7.5.12 Water, H2O;331
6.2.5.13;7.5.13 Chlorides and Fluorides;332
6.2.5.14;7.5.14 Baria, BaO;333
6.2.5.15;7.5.15 Zinc Oxide, ZnO;333
6.2.5.16;7.5.16 Strontia, SrO;334
6.2.5.17;7.5.17 Multivalent Constituents;334
6.2.5.17.1;7.5.17.1 Colorants and Refining Agents;334
6.2.5.17.2;7.5.17.2 Effects on Physical Properties;336
6.2.5.18;7.5.18 Other Compounds;337
6.2.5.19;7.5.19 Recycled Filter Dust;339
6.2.5.20;7.5.20 Nitrates;339
6.2.6;7.6 Glass Reformulation Methodologies;340
6.2.6.1;7.6.1 Worked Examples and Implementation;340
6.2.6.1.1;7.6.1.1 Reformulation Constrained by Composition;343
6.2.6.1.2;7.6.1.2 Reformulation Constrained by Batch;345
6.2.6.1.3;7.6.1.3 Unconstrained Reformulation;347
6.2.6.1.4;7.6.1.4 Other Industrial Trials and Implementation;349
6.2.6.2;7.6.2 Reformulation Benefits and Pitfalls;351
6.2.6.3;7.6.3 Research Requirements and Closing Remarks;353
6.2.7;References;355
7;Part III Glass Melting Technology;362
7.1;8 Basics of Melting and Glass Formation;363
7.1.1;8.1 Motivation;363
7.1.2;8.2 Former Melting Criteria;364
7.1.3;8.3 Analysis of the Enthalpy Functions of One-Component Systems;367
7.1.3.1;8.3.1 Theoretical Preliminaries;367
7.1.3.2;8.3.2 Pre-melting Range and the Contribution to the Molar Specific Heat Capacity by Electrons;369
7.1.4;8.4 Melting and the Glass Transformation;373
7.1.5;8.5 Effects Occurring in the Glass Transformation Range;376
7.1.6;8.6 What Makes Solids and Melts Expand?;377
7.1.7;8.7 Modulus of Compression of the Chemical Elements;383
7.1.8;8.8 Necessary Criteria for Glass Formation;383
7.1.9;8.9 Possible Extension to Multi-Component Systems;389
7.1.10;8.10 Discussion;389
7.1.11;References;390
7.2;9 Thermodynamics of Glass Melting;392
7.2.1;9.1 Approach to the Thermodynamics of Glasses and Glass Melts;392
7.2.1.1;9.1.1 Description Frame for the Thermodynamic Properties of Industrial Glass-Forming Systems;393
7.2.1.2;9.1.2 Heat Content of Glass Melts;395
7.2.1.3;9.1.3 Chemical Potentials and Vapor Pressures of Individual Oxides;398
7.2.1.4;9.1.4 Entropy and Viscosity;401
7.2.2;9.2 The Role of Individual Raw Materials;402
7.2.2.1;9.2.1 Sand;402
7.2.2.2;9.2.2 Boron Carriers;404
7.2.2.3;9.2.3 Dolomite and Limestone;407
7.2.3;9.3 The Batch-to-Melt Conversion;411
7.2.3.1;9.3.1 Stages of Batch Melting;411
7.2.3.2;9.3.2 Heat Demand of the Batch-to-Melt Conversion;412
7.2.3.3;9.3.3 Modeling of the Batch-to-Melt Conversion Reaction Path;414
7.2.4;References;416
7.3;10 Glass Melt Stability;420
7.3.1;10.1 Introduction;420
7.3.2;10.2 Target Properties of Glass Melt and Glass Product;421
7.3.2.1;10.2.1 Batch-Related Fluctuations;422
7.3.2.2;10.2.2 Combustion-Related Fluctuations;423
7.3.2.3;10.2.3 Process-Related Fluctuations;423
7.3.3;10.3 In Situ Sensors;424
7.3.3.1;10.3.1 Sensors for Monitoring Glass Melt Properties;425
7.3.3.1.1;10.3.1.1 Viscosity;425
7.3.3.1.2;10.3.1.2 Redox Measurement;425
7.3.3.1.3;10.3.1.3 Voltammetric Sensor;426
7.3.3.1.4;10.3.1.4 Emission Spectroscopy;428
7.3.3.1.5;10.3.1.5 Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS);429
7.3.3.2;10.3.2 Sensors for Monitoring Species in the Combustion Space;429
7.3.3.2.1;10.3.2.1 Sensors for Environmental Measurements;429
7.3.3.2.2;10.3.2.2 Sensors for Optimizing Combustion Efficiency;430
7.3.4;10.4 Examples of Glass Melt Stability Control;430
7.3.4.1;10.4.1 Redox Control of Glass Melting with High Portions of Recycled Glass;430
7.3.4.2;10.4.2 Redox Control of Amber Glass Melting;432
7.3.5;10.5 Conclusions and Outlook;434
7.3.6;References;434
7.4;11 Plasma Melting Technology and Applications;437
7.4.1;11.1 Concepts of Modular and Skull Melting;437
7.4.2;11.2 The Technology of High-Intensity DC-Arc Plasmas;439
7.4.2.1;11.2.1 Conductive;440
7.4.2.2;11.2.2 Radiant;441
7.4.2.3;11.2.3 Joule Heating;442
7.4.3;11.3 Brief History of Plasma Melting of Glass;443
7.4.3.1;11.3.1 Johns-Manville;443
7.4.3.2;11.3.2 British Glass Institute;444
7.4.3.3;11.3.3 Plasmelt Glass Technologies, LLC;444
7.4.3.4;11.3.4 Japanese Consortium Project;445
7.4.4;11.4 DOE Research Project 20032006;446
7.4.4.1;11.4.1 Acknowledgments;446
7.4.4.2;11.4.2 Experimental Setup of the Plasmelt Melting System;446
7.4.4.3;11.4.3 Technical Challenges of Plasma Glass Melting;448
7.4.4.4;11.4.4 Glasses Melted: Results and Broad Implications;450
7.4.4.4.1;11.4.4.1 Glass Melting Trials;450
7.4.4.5;11.4.5 Synthetic Minerals Processing Implications;453
7.4.4.6;11.4.6 Energy Efficiency vs. Throughput;454
7.4.4.6.1;11.4.6.1 Energy Efficiency;454
7.4.4.6.2;11.4.6.2 Energy Balance;455
7.4.5;11.5 Future Applications for Plasma Melting;456
7.4.6;11.6 Summary and Conclusions;457
7.4.7;References;457
8;Index;458