Wang / Hung Molecular Mechanisms of Neurotransmitter Release

2008
ISBN: 978-1-59745-481-0
Verlag: Humana Press
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band XXXXXX, 347 Seiten

Reihe: Advances in Neurobiology

Neurons in the nervous system organize into complex networks and their functions are precisely controlled. The most important means for neurons to communicate with each other is transmission through chemical synapses, where the release of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic nerve terminal of one neuron influences the function of a second neuron. Since the discovery of chemical neurotransmission by Otto Loewi in the 1920s, great progress has been made in our understanding of mol- ular mechanisms of neurotransmitter release. The last decade has seen an explosion of knowledge in this field. The aim of Molecular Mechanisms of Neurotransmitter Release is to provide up-to-date, in-depth coverage of essentially all major mole- lar mechanisms of neurotransmitter release. The contributors have made great efforts to write concisely but with sufficient background information, and to use figures/diagrams to present clearly key concepts or experiments. It is hoped that this book may serve as a learning tool for neuroscience students, a solid reference for neuroscientists, and a source of knowledge for people who have a general interest in neuroscience. I was fortunate to be able to gather contributions from a group of outstanding scientists. I thank them for their efforts. In particular, I want to thank Dr. Erik Jorgensen who offered valuable suggestions about the book in addition to contrib- ing an excellent chapter. I thank US National Science Foundation and National Institute of Health for their supports.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Hung, Yung-Tse

Wang, Zhao-Wen

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;7
2;Contents;10
3;Contributors;19
4;Chapter 1;20
4.1;Transport and Pumping of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids;20
4.1.1;1. Introduction;20
4.1.1.1;1.1. Sewage Sludge and Biosolids;20
4.1.1.2;1.2. Biosolids Applications;21
4.1.1.3;1.3. Transport and Pumping of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids;21
4.1.2;2. Pumping;21
4.1.2.1;2.1. Types of Sludge and Biosolids Pumps;22
4.1.2.1.1;2.1.1. Centrifugal Pumps;22
4.1.2.1.2;2.1.2. Torque Flow Pumps;23
4.1.2.1.3;2.1.3. Plunger Pumps;24
4.1.2.1.4;2.1.4. Piston Pumps;25
4.1.2.1.5;2.1.5. Progressive Cavity Pumps;26
4.1.2.1.6;2.1.6. Diaphragm Pumps;27
4.1.2.1.7;2.1.7. Rotary Pumps;29
4.1.2.1.8;2.1.8. Ejector Pumps;30
4.1.2.1.9;2.1.9. Gas Lift Pumps;31
4.1.2.1.10;2.1.10. Water Eductors;31
4.1.2.2;2.2. Application and Performance Evaluation of Sludge and Sludge/Biosolids Pumps;31
4.1.2.3;2.3. Control Considerations;33
4.1.3;3. Pipelines;37
4.1.3.1;3.1. Pipe, Fittings, and Valves;37
4.1.3.2;3.2. Long-Distance Transport;37
4.1.3.3;3.3. Headloss Calculations;40
4.1.3.4;3.4. Design Guidance;41
4.1.3.5;3.5. In-Line Grinding;45
4.1.3.6;3.6. Cost;45
4.1.4;4. Dewatered Wastewater Solids Conveyance;47
4.1.4.1;4.1. Manual Transport of Screenings and Grit;48
4.1.4.2;4.2. Belt Conveyors;48
4.1.4.3;4.3. Screw Conveyors;51
4.1.4.4;4.4. Positive-Displacement–Type Conveyors;52
4.1.4.5;4.5. Pneumatic Conveyors;52
4.1.4.6;4.7. Odors;55
4.1.5;5. Long-Distance Wastewater Solids Hauling;55
4.1.5.1;5.1. Truck Transportation;56
4.1.5.1.1;5.1.1. Types of Trucks;56
4.1.5.1.2;5.1.2. Owned Equipment vs. Contract Hauling;57
4.1.5.1.3;5.1.3. Haul Scheduling;58
4.1.5.1.4;5.1.4. Design Criteria;58
4.1.5.1.5;5.1.5. Costs of Sludge/biosolids Trucking;58
4.1.5.1.6;5.1.6. Training of Workers;59
4.1.5.2;5.2. Rail Transportation;61
4.1.5.2.1;5.2.1. Advantages and Disadvantages;61
4.1.5.2.2;5.2.2. Routes;61
4.1.5.2.3;5.2.3. Haul Contracts;62
4.1.5.2.4;5.2.4. Railcar Supply;62
4.1.5.2.5;5.2.5. Ancillary Facilities;63
4.1.5.2.6;5.2.6. Design Criteria;63
4.1.5.2.7;5.2.7. Manpower, Energy Requirements, and Costs;65
4.1.5.3;5.3. Barge Transportation;66
4.1.5.3.1;5.3.1. Routes and Transit Times;66
4.1.5.3.2;5.3.2. Haul or System Contracting;67
4.1.5.3.3;5.3.3. Barge Selection and Acquisition;68
4.1.5.3.4;5.3.4. Ancillary Facilities;69
4.1.5.3.5;5.3.5. Spill Prevention and Cleanup;70
4.1.5.4;5.4. Design of Sludge/Biosolids Hauling;70
4.1.5.4.1;5.4.1. Background;70
4.1.5.4.2;5.4.2. Input Data;71
4.1.5.4.3;5.4.3. Design Parameters;72
4.1.5.4.4;5.4.4. Design Procedure;72
4.1.5.4.5;5.4.5. Output Data;73
4.1.5.5;5.5. Example;73
4.1.5.5.1;Given:;73
4.1.5.5.2;Compute:;73
4.1.6;6. Potential Risk to Biosolids Exposure;74
4.1.6.1;6.1. Biosolids Constituents that Require Control ofWorker Exposure;75
4.1.6.2;6.2. Steps to Be Taken for Protection of Workers;76
4.1.6.2.1;6.2.1. Provision of Basic Hygiene Recommendations for Workers;76
4.1.6.2.2;6.2.2. Provision of Appropriate Protective Equipment, Hygiene Stations, and Training;77
4.1.6.2.2.1;6.2.2.1. Personal Protective Equipment;77
4.1.6.2.2.2;6.2.2.2. Hygiene and Sanitation;77
4.1.6.2.2.3;6.2.2.3. Training;77
4.1.6.2.2.4;6.2.2.4. Reporting;77
4.1.6.2.2.5;6.2.2.5. Immunizations;78
4.1.6.2.3;6.2.3. Good Environmental Practices to Prevent and Minimize Occupational Exposures;78
4.1.7;Nomenclature;78
4.1.8;References;79
4.1.9;Appendix;83
5;Chapter 2;84
5.1;Conversion of Sewage Sludge to Biosolids;84
5.1.1;1. Introduction;84
5.1.1.1;1.1. Sewage and Sewage Sludge Generation;84
5.1.1.2;1.2. Composition and Characteristics of Sewage;85
5.1.1.3;1.3. Sewage and Sewage Sludge Treatment;87
5.1.1.3.1;1.3.1. Objectives of Sewage Treatment;87
5.1.1.3.2;1.3.2. Sewage Treatment Processes;87
5.1.1.3.2.1;1.3.2.1. Screening (or Preliminary) Treatment;87
5.1.1.3.2.2;1.3.2.2. Primary Treatment;87
5.1.1.3.3;1.3.3. Biosolids Treatment;88
5.1.1.3.4;1.3.4. Biosolids Applications;88
5.1.1.4;1.4. Biosolids Regulations;89
5.1.2;2. Sewage Clarification;91
5.1.2.1;2.1. Sedimentation Clarification;91
5.1.2.2;2.2. Flotation Clarification;91
5.1.2.3;2.3. Membrane Clarification;92
5.1.3;3. Sewage Sludge Stabilization;92
5.1.3.1;3.1. Aerobic Stabilization;93
5.1.3.1.1;3.1.1. Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion (ATAD);94
5.1.3.1.2;3.1.2. Anoxic Aerobic Digestion;94
5.1.3.2;3.2. Alkaline Stabilization;94
5.1.3.2.1;3.2.1. Alkaline Pretreatment;95
5.1.3.2.2;3.2.2. Lime Stabilization;95
5.1.3.3;3.3. Advanced Alkaline Stabilization;96
5.1.3.4;3.4. Anaerobic Digestion;96
5.1.3.4.1;3.4.1. Two-Stage Digesters;99
5.1.3.4.2;3.4.2. Anaerobic-Baffled Reactor (ABR);99
5.1.3.4.3;3.4.3. Columbus Biosolids Flow-Through Thermophilic Treatment (CBFT3);100
5.1.3.4.4;3.4.4. High Rate Plug Flow;100
5.1.3.4.5;3.4.5. Temperature-Phased Anaerobic Digestion;100
5.1.3.4.6;3.4.6. Thermal Hydrolysis;100
5.1.3.4.7;3.4.7. Thermophilic Anaerobic Digestion Fermentation;101
5.1.3.4.8;3.4.8. Three-Phase Anaerobic Digestion;101
5.1.3.4.9;3.4.9. Two-Phase Anaerobic Digestion;101
5.1.3.4.10;3.4.10. Anaerobic Digestion with Ozone Treatment;102
5.1.3.4.11;3.4.11. Ferrate Addition;102
5.1.3.4.12;3.4.12. Irradiation;102
5.1.3.4.13;3.4.13. Acidification;102
5.1.3.5;3.5. Composting;103
5.1.3.5.1;3.5.1. Aerated Static Pile;104
5.1.3.5.2;3.5.2. Windrow;104
5.1.3.5.3;3.5.3. In-Vessel;105
5.1.3.5.4;3.5.4. Vermicomposting;105
5.1.3.6;3.6. Pasteurization;105
5.1.3.7;3.7. Deep-Shaft Digestion;106
5.1.4;4. Conditioning;106
5.1.4.1;4.1. Chemical Conditioning;106
5.1.4.2;4.2. Heat Conditioning;107
5.1.4.3;4.3. Cell Destruction;108
5.1.4.3.1;4.3.1. Chemical Cell Destruction;108
5.1.4.3.2;4.3.2. Ultrasonic Cell Destruction;109
5.1.4.3.3;4.3.3. Biological Cell Destruction;109
5.1.4.4;4.4. Odor Conditioning;109
5.1.4.5;4.5. Electrocoagulation;110
5.1.4.6;4.6. Enzyme Conditioning;111
5.1.4.7;4.7. Freezing;111
5.1.5;5. Thickening;112
5.1.5.1;5.1. Gravity Thickening;112
5.1.5.2;5.2. Centrifugation Thickening;114
5.1.5.3;5.3. Gravity Belt Thickening;116
5.1.5.4;5.4. Flotation Thickening;116
5.1.5.5;5.5. Rotary Drum Thickening;116
5.1.5.6;5.6. Anoxic Gas Flotation Thickening;116
5.1.5.7;5.7. Membrane Thickening;118
5.1.5.8;5.8. Recuperative Thickening;119
5.1.5.9;5.9. Metal Screen Thickening;119
5.1.6;6. Dewatering and Drying;119
5.1.6.1;6.1. Belt Filter Press;119
5.1.6.2;6.2. Recessed-Plate Filter Press;120
5.1.6.3;6.3. Centrifuges;122
5.1.6.3.1;6.3.1. Solid-Bowl Centrifuge;122
5.1.6.3.2;6.3.2. Imperforate Basket Centrifuge;122
5.1.6.4;6.4. Drying Beds;123
5.1.6.4.1;6.4.1. Conventional Drying Beds;123
5.1.6.4.2;6.4.2. Paved Drying Beds;123
5.1.6.4.3;6.4.3. Vacuum-Assisted Drying Beds;124
5.1.6.4.4;6.4.4. Artificial Media Drying Beds;124
5.1.6.4.5;6.4.5. Quick Drying Beds;124
5.1.6.5;6.5. Vacuum Filtration;125
5.1.6.6;6.6. Electro-Dewatering;126
5.1.6.6.1;6.6.1. Electroacoustic Dewatering;126
5.1.6.6.2;6.6.2. Electro-Osmotic Dewatering;126
5.1.6.7;6.7. Metal Screen Filtration;126
5.1.6.8;6.8. Textile Media Filtration;127
5.1.6.8.1;6.8.1. Bucher Hydraulic Press;127
5.1.6.8.2;6.8.2. Drainer System;127
5.1.6.8.3;6.8.3. Geotextile Tube Container;127
5.1.6.8.4;6.8.4. Simon Moos;127
5.1.6.8.5;6.8.5. Tubular Filter Press;128
5.1.6.9;6.9. Membrane Filter Press;128
5.1.6.10;6.10. Thermal Conditioning and Dewatering;128
5.1.6.11;6.11. Drying;128
5.1.6.11.1;6.11.1. Direct Drying;129
5.1.6.11.2;6.11.2. Flash Drying;129
5.1.6.11.3;6.11.3. Indirect Drying;130
5.1.6.11.4;6.11.4. Belt Drying;131
5.1.6.11.5;6.11.5. Direct Microwave Drying;131
5.1.6.11.6;6.11.6. Fluidized Bed Drying;131
5.1.6.11.7;6.11.7. Chemical Drying;131
5.1.7;7. Other Processes;132
5.1.7.1;7.1. Focused Electrode Leak Locator (FELL) Electroscanning;132
5.1.7.2;7.2. Lystek Thermal/Chemical Process;132
5.1.7.3;7.3. Kiln Injection;132
5.1.8;8. Case Study;133
5.1.9;9. Summary;133
5.1.10;Acronyms;133
5.1.11;References;134
6;Chapter 3;139
6.1;Biosolids Thickening-Dewatering and Septage Treatment;139
6.1.1;1. Introduction;140
6.1.2;2. Expressor Press;141
6.1.3;3. Som-A-System;143
6.1.4;4. Centripress;145
6.1.5;5. Hollin Iron Works Screw Press;146
6.1.6;6. Sun Sludge System;150
6.1.7;7. Wedgewater Bed;152
6.1.8;8. Vacuum-Assisted Bed;154
6.1.9;9. Reed Bed;155
6.1.10;10. Sludge-Freezing Bed;157
6.1.11;11. Biological Flotation;158
6.1.12;12. Septage Treatment;158
6.1.12.1;12.1. Receiving Station (Dumping Station/Storage Facilities);158
6.1.12.2;12.2. Receiving Station (Dumping Station, Pretreatment, Equalization);159
6.1.12.3;12.3. Land Application of Septage;160
6.1.12.4;12.4. Lagoon Disposal;162
6.1.12.5;12.5. Composting;163
6.1.12.6;12.6. Odor Control;164
6.1.13;References;165
7;Chapter 4;169
7.1;Waste Chlorination and Stabilization;169
7.1.1;1. Introduction;169
7.1.1.1;1.1. Process Introduction;169
7.1.1.2;1.2. Glossary;170
7.1.2;2. Wastewater Chlorination;171
7.1.2.1;2.1. Process Description;171
7.1.2.2;2.2. Design and Operation Considerations;172
7.1.2.2.1;2.2.1. General Considerations;172
7.1.2.2.2;2.2.2. Specific Design Procedures;174
7.1.2.3;2.3. Process Equipment and Control;175
7.1.2.4;2.4. Design Example—Design of aWastewater Chlorine Contact Chamber;176
7.1.2.5;2.5. Application Example—Coxsackie Sewage Treatment Plant, Coxsackie, NY, USA;183
7.1.3;3. Sludge Chlorination and Stabilization;185
7.1.3.1;3.1. Process Description;185
7.1.3.2;3.2. Design and Operation Considerations;187
7.1.3.3;3.3. Process Equipment and Control;189
7.1.3.3.1;3.3.1. Process Equipment;189
7.1.3.3.2;3.3.2. Staffing Requirements;189
7.1.3.3.3;3.3.3. Monitoring;189
7.1.3.3.4;3.3.4. Normal Operating Procedures;190
7.1.3.3.4.1;3.3.4.1. Pre-Startup and Startup;190
7.1.3.3.4.2;3.3.4.2. Routine and Shutdown Operations;191
7.1.3.3.5;3.3.5. Process Control Considerations;191
7.1.3.3.6;3.3.6. Emergency Operating Procedures;191
7.1.3.3.7;3.3.7. Common Process Shortcomings and Solutions;192
7.1.3.3.8;3.3.8. Maintenance Considerations;192
7.1.3.4;3.4. Application Example—Coxsackie Sewage Treatment Plant, Coxsackie, NY, USA;196
7.1.4;4. Septage Chlorination and Stabilization;201
7.1.4.1;4.1. Process Description;201
7.1.4.2;4.2. Design and Operation Considerations;202
7.1.4.3;4.3. Process Equipment and Control;204
7.1.4.4;4.4. Design Criteria;204
7.1.5;5. Safety Considerations of Chlorination Processes;205
7.1.6;6. Recent Advances Inwaste Disinfection;206
7.1.7;Nomenclature;207
7.1.8;Acknowledgments;207
7.1.9;References;208
8;Chapter 5;211
8.1;Storage of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids;211
8.1.1;1. Introduction;211
8.1.1.1;1.1. Need for Storage;212
8.1.1.2;1.2. Risks and Benefits of Solids Storage Within Wastewater Treatment Systems;212
8.1.1.3;1.3. Storage Within Wastewater Sludge Treatment Processes;212
8.1.1.4;1.4. Field Storage of Biosolids;213
8.1.1.5;1.5. Effects of Storage on Wastewater Solids;213
8.1.1.6;1.6. Types of Storage;214
8.1.2;2. Wastewater Treatment Storage;215
8.1.2.1;2.1. StorageWithin Wastewater Treatment Processes;215
8.1.2.1.1;2.1.1. Grit Removal;215
8.1.2.1.2;2.1.2. Primary Sedimentation;220
8.1.2.1.3;2.1.3. Aeration Reactors and Secondary Sedimentation;220
8.1.2.1.4;2.1.4. Imhoff and Community Septic Tanks;221
8.1.2.1.5;2.1.5. Wastewater Stabilization Ponds;221
8.1.2.1.6;2.1.6. Evaporation Lagoons;222
8.1.2.1.6.1;2.1.6.1. Performance;223
8.1.2.1.6.2;2.1.6.2. Design Criteria;223
8.1.2.1.6.3;2.1.6.3. Energy and Cost;223
8.1.2.2;2.2. Storage Within Wastewater Sludge Treatment Processes;224
8.1.2.2.1;2.2.1. Gravity Thickeners;224
8.1.2.2.2;2.2.2. Anaerobic Digesters;224
8.1.2.2.3;2.2.3. Aerobic Digesters;225
8.1.2.2.4;2.2.4. Composting;225
8.1.2.2.5;2.2.5. Drying Beds;225
8.1.3;3. Facilities Dedicated to Storage of Liquid Sludge;226
8.1.3.1;3.1. Holding Tanks;226
8.1.3.1.1;3.1.1. Design Criteria;227
8.1.3.1.2;3.1.2. Costs of Holding Tanks;228
8.1.3.2;3.2. Facultative Sludge Lagoons;231
8.1.3.2.1;3.2.1. Theory;232
8.1.3.2.2;3.2.2. Usage Status;233
8.1.3.2.3;3.2.3. Design Criteria;234
8.1.3.2.3.1;3.2.3.1. Area Loading Rate;235
8.1.3.2.3.2;3.2.3.2. Surface Agitation Requirements;235
8.1.3.2.3.3;3.2.3.3. Dimensional and Layout Limitations;235
8.1.3.2.3.4;3.2.3.4. Physical Considerations;237
8.1.3.2.4;3.2.4. Operational Considerations;238
8.1.3.2.4.1;3.2.4.1. Startup and Loading;238
8.1.3.2.4.2;3.2.4.2. Daily Routine;239
8.1.3.2.4.3;3.2.4.3. Sludge Removal;239
8.1.3.2.5;3.2.5. Energy Impacts;239
8.1.3.2.6;3.2.6. Actual Performance Data;239
8.1.3.2.7;3.2.7. Public Health and Environmental Impact;241
8.1.3.2.7.1;3.2.7.1. Vector Impacts;242
8.1.3.2.7.2;3.2.7.2. Groundwater Impacts;242
8.1.3.2.7.3;3.2.7.3. Pathogen Impacts;242
8.1.3.2.7.4;3.2.7.4. Odor Impacts;245
8.1.3.3;3.3. Anaerobic Liquid Sludge Lagoons;247
8.1.3.4;3.4. Aerated Storage Basins;250
8.1.3.4.1;3.4.1. Mixing Requirements;250
8.1.3.4.2;3.4.2. Oxygen Requirements;251
8.1.3.4.3;3.4.3. Level Variability;251
8.1.4;4. Facilities Dedicated to Storage of Dewatered Sludge;251
8.1.4.1;4.1. Drying Sludge Lagoons;252
8.1.4.1.1;4.1.1. Performance Data;252
8.1.4.1.1.1;4.1.1.1. San Jose, California;252
8.1.4.1.1.2;4.1.1.2. Chicago;253
8.1.4.2;4.2. Confined Hoppers or Bins;255
8.1.4.2.1;4.2.1. Continuing Decomposition;255
8.1.4.2.2;4.2.2. Liquefaction;256
8.1.4.2.3;4.2.3. Concentration and Consolidation;256
8.1.4.2.4;4.2.4. Performance Data;257
8.1.4.3;4.3. Unconfined Stockpiles;259
8.1.5;5. Field Storage of Biosolids;260
8.1.5.1;5.1. Management of Storage;261
8.1.5.1.1;5.1.1. Critical Control Points (Key Management Areas);261
8.1.5.1.2;5.1.2. Variables Related to Intensity of Management;261
8.1.5.1.3;5.1.3. Need for Partnerships;263
8.1.5.2;5.2. Odors;263
8.1.5.2.1;5.2.1. Primary Biosolids Odorants;264
8.1.5.2.2;5.2.2. Odor Management: A Partnership Effort;264
8.1.5.2.3;5.2.3. Factors Affecting Ultimate Odor Potential at Critical Control Point 1: The Wastewater Treatment Plant;265
8.1.5.2.3.1;5.2.3.1. Stability;265
8.1.5.2.3.2;5.2.3.2. Vector Attraction Reduction;267
8.1.5.2.4;5.2.4. Factors Affecting Ultimate Odor Potential at Critical Control Point 2: The Transportation Process;267
8.1.5.2.5;5.2.5. Factors Affecting Ultimate Odor Potential at Critical Control Point 3: The Field Storage Site;267
8.1.5.3;5.3. Water Quality;268
8.1.5.3.1;5.3.1. Nutrients, Organic Matter, and Impacts on Surface Water;269
8.1.5.3.2;5.3.2. Nutrients and Groundwater;270
8.1.5.3.3;5.3.3. Pathogenic Organisms;270
8.1.5.3.4;5.3.4. Metals and Synthetic Organic Chemicals;271
8.1.5.3.5;5.3.5. Management Approaches;271
8.1.5.4;5.4. Pathogens;273
8.1.5.4.1;5.4.1. Biosolids Products Characteristics;274
8.1.5.4.2;5.4.2. Biosolids Storage Considerations;275
8.1.5.4.2.1;5.4.2.1. Pathogens in Stored Class A Biosolids;275
8.1.5.4.2.2;5.4.2.2. Pathogens in Stored Class B Biosolids;275
8.1.5.4.2.3;5.4.2.3. Accumulated Water;276
8.1.5.4.2.4;5.4.2.4. Required Retesting;276
8.1.5.4.3;5.4.3. Storage Site Management;276
8.1.5.4.4;5.4.4. Worker Safety;278
8.1.6;6. Design Examples;279
8.1.6.1;Example 1;279
8.1.6.2;Example 2;280
8.1.6.3;Example 3;284
8.1.7;Nomenclature;285
8.1.8;References;285
8.1.9;Appendix;290
9;Chapter 6;291
9.1;Regulations and Costs of Biosolids Disposal and Reuse;291
9.1.1;1. Introduction;292
9.1.1.1;1.1. Historical Background;292
9.1.1.2;1.2. Background of the Part 503 Rule;293
9.1.1.3;1.3. Risk Assessment Basis of the Part 503 Rule;294
9.1.1.4;1.4. Overview of the Rule;294
9.1.2;2. Land Application of Biosolids;295
9.1.2.1;2.1. Pollutant Limits, and Pathogen and Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements;298
9.1.2.2;2.2. Options for Meeting Land Application Requirements;298
9.1.2.2.1;2.2.1. Option 1: Exceptional Quality Biosolids;301
9.1.2.2.2;2.2.2. Option 2: Pollutant Concentration Biosolids;302
9.1.2.2.3;2.2.3. Option 3: Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rate Biosolids;304
9.1.2.2.4;2.2.4. Option 4: Annual Pollutant Loading Rate (APLR) Biosolids;307
9.1.2.2.4.1;Example 1;308
9.1.2.2.4.2;Solution;308
9.1.2.3;2.3. General Requirements and Management Practices;308
9.1.2.3.1;2.3.1. Endangered Species;308
9.1.2.3.2;2.3.2. Flooded, Frozen, or Snow-Covered Land;309
9.1.2.3.3;2.3.3. Distance to U.S. Waters;309
9.1.2.3.4;2.3.4. Agronomic Rate;309
9.1.2.3.4.1;Example 2;310
9.1.2.3.4.2;Solution;310
9.1.2.4;2.4. Frequency of Monitoring Requirements;310
9.1.2.5;2.5. Record-Keeping and Reporting Requirements;310
9.1.2.6;2.6. Domestic Septage;311
9.1.2.7;2.7. Liability Issues and Enforcement Oversight;311
9.1.3;3. Surface Disposal of Biosolids;312
9.1.3.1;3.1. General Requirements for Surface Disposal Sites;313
9.1.3.2;3.2. Pollutant Limits for Biosolids Placed on Surface Disposal Sites;314
9.1.3.3;3.3. Management Practices for Surface Disposal of Biosolids;315
9.1.3.3.1;3.3.1. Protection of Threatened or Endangered Species;315
9.1.3.3.2;3.3.2. Restriction of Base Flood Flow;316
9.1.3.3.3;3.3.3. Geological Stability;316
9.1.3.3.4;3.3.4. Protection of Wetlands;317
9.1.3.3.5;3.3.5. Collection of Runoff;317
9.1.3.3.6;3.3.6. Collection of Leachate;318
9.1.3.3.7;3.3.7. Limitations on Methane Gas Concentrations;318
9.1.3.3.8;3.3.8. Restrictions on Crop Production;319
9.1.3.3.9;3.3.9. Restrictions on Grazing;319
9.1.3.3.10;3.3.10. Restrictions on Public Access;320
9.1.3.3.11;3.3.11. Protection of Ground Water;320
9.1.3.4;3.4. Pathogen and Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements for Surface Disposal Sites;320
9.1.3.5;3.5. Frequency of Monitoring Requirements for Surface Disposal Sites;321
9.1.3.6;3.6. Record-Keeping and Reporting Requirements for Surface Disposal Sites;323
9.1.3.7;3.7. Regulatory Requirements for Surface Disposal of Domestic Septage;323
9.1.4;4. Incineration of Biosolids;323
9.1.4.1;4.1. Pollutant Limits for Biosolids Fired in a Biosolids Incinerator;324
9.1.4.1.1;4.1.1. Beryllium and Mercury Pollutant Limits;324
9.1.4.1.2;4.1.2. Control Efficiency, Dispersion Factor, Feed Rate, and Pollutant Limit Calculations for Lead;326
9.1.4.1.2.1;Example 3;326
9.1.4.1.2.2;Solution;326
9.1.4.1.2.3;Example 4;328
9.1.4.1.2.4;Example 5: Pollutant Limit for Arsenic;330
9.1.4.2;4.2. Total Hydrocarbons;332
9.1.4.2.1;4.2.1. Total Hydrocarbon and Carbon Monoxide Measurement;332
9.1.4.2.2;4.2.2. Correction for 0% Moisture;332
9.1.4.2.2.1;Example 6;332
9.1.4.2.2.2;Solution;333
9.1.4.2.3;4.2.3. Correction to 7% Oxygen;333
9.1.4.2.3.1;Example 7;333
9.1.4.2.3.2;Solution;334
9.1.4.3;4.3. Management Practices for Biosolids Incineration;334
9.1.4.3.1;4.3.1. Instruments Operation and Maintenance;334
9.1.4.3.2;4.3.2. Temperature Requirements;335
9.1.4.3.3;4.3.3. Air Pollution Control Devices;335
9.1.4.3.4;4.3.4. Protection of Threatened or Endangered Species;335
9.1.4.4;4.4. Frequency of Monitoring Requirements for Biosolids Incineration;335
9.1.4.4.1;4.4.1. Monitoring for Metals;335
9.1.4.4.2;4.4.2. Continuous Monitoring;336
9.1.4.4.3;4.4.3. Monitoring Conditions in Air Pollution Control Devices;336
9.1.4.5;4.5. Record-Keeping and Reporting Requirements for Biosolids Incineration;338
9.1.5;5. Pathogen and Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements;338
9.1.5.1;5.1. Pathogen Reduction Alternatives;338
9.1.5.1.1;5.1.1. Class A Pathogen Requirements;339
9.1.5.1.1.1;5.1.1.1. Alternative 1 for Meeting Class A: Thermally Treated Biosolids;340
9.1.5.1.1.1.1;Example 8;341
9.1.5.1.1.1.2;Solution;341
9.1.5.1.1.1.3;Example 9;341
9.1.5.1.1.1.4;Solution;342
9.1.5.1.1.2;5.1.1.2. Alternative 2 For Meeting Class A: Biosolids Treated in A High Ph-High Temperature Process;342
9.1.5.1.1.3;5.1.1.3. Alternative 3 for Meeting Class A: Biosolids Treated in Other Processes;342
9.1.5.1.1.4;5.1.1.4. Alternative 4 for Meeting Class A: Biosolids Treated in Unknown Processes;343
9.1.5.1.1.5;5.1.1.5. Alternative 5 for Meeting Class A: Biosolids Treated in A Process to Further Reduce Pathogens;343
9.1.5.1.1.6;5.1.1.6. Alternative 6 for Meeting Class A: Biosolids Treated in A Process Equivalent to A Process to Further Reduce Pathogens;344
9.1.5.1.2;5.1.2. Class B Pathogen Requirements;345
9.1.5.1.2.1;5.1.2.1. Alternative 1 for Meeting Class B: The Monitoring of Indicator Organisms;345
9.1.5.1.2.2;5.1.2.2. Alternative 2 for Meeting Class B: Biosolids Treated in Aprocess to Significantly Reduce Pathogens;345
9.1.5.1.2.3;5.1.2.3. Alternative 3 for Meeting Class B: Biosolids Treatedin A Process Equivalent to A Process to Significantly Reduce Pathogens;346
9.1.5.2;5.2. Requirements for Reducing Vector Attraction;346
9.1.5.2.1;5.2.1. Option 1: Reduction in Volatile Solids Content;347
9.1.5.2.2;5.2.2. Option 2: Additional Digestion of Anaerobically Digested Biosolids;347
9.1.5.2.3;5.2.3. Option 3: Additional Digestion of Aerobically Digested Biosolids;348
9.1.5.2.4;5.2.4. Option 4: Specific Oxygen Uptake Rate for Aerobically Digested Biosolids;348
9.1.5.2.5;5.2.5. Option 5: Aerobic Processes at Greater Than 40DegreeC;348
9.1.5.2.6;5.2.6. Option 6: Addition of Alkaline Material;348
9.1.5.2.7;5.2.7. Option 7: Moisture Reduction of Biosolids Containing No Unstabilized Solids;349
9.1.5.2.8;5.2.8. Option 8: Moisture Reduction of Biosolids Containing Unstabilized Solids;349
9.1.5.2.9;5.2.9. Option 9: Biosolids Injection;349
9.1.5.2.10;5.2.10. Option 10: Incorporation of Biosolids into the Soil;349
9.1.5.2.11;5.2.11. Option 11: Covering Biosolids;350
9.1.5.2.12;5.2.12. Option 12: Alkaline Treatment for Domestic Septage;350
9.1.6;6. Costs;350
9.1.6.1;6.1. Description of Alternatives;351
9.1.6.2;6.2. Cost Relationships;354
9.1.6.3;6.3. Sludge Disposal Cost Curves;354
9.1.6.4;6.4. Procedure for Using the Diagram;355
9.1.7;Acronyms;355
9.1.8;Nomenclature;356
9.1.9;References;356
9.1.10;Appendix;360
10;Chapter 7;361
10.1;Engineering and Management of Agricultural Land Application;361
10.1.1;1. Introduction;362
10.1.1.1;1.1. Biosolids;362
10.1.1.2;1.2. Biosolids Production and Pretreatment Before Land Application;362
10.1.1.3;1.3. Biosolids Characteristics;363
10.1.1.4;1.4. Agricultural Land Application for Beneficial Use;365
10.1.1.5;1.5. U.S. Federal and State Regulations;366
10.1.1.5.1;1.5.1. Heavy Metal Limits;367
10.1.1.5.2;1.5.2. Organic Chemicals;368
10.1.1.5.3;1.5.3. Pathogen Reduction;368
10.1.1.5.4;1.5.4. Vector Attraction Reduction;369
10.1.1.5.5;1.5.5. Categories of Biosolids Quality;369
10.1.1.5.6;1.5.6. Nutrients;371
10.1.1.5.7;1.5.7. Site Suitability and Location;371
10.1.2;2. Agricultural Land Application;371
10.1.2.1;2.1. Land Application Process;371
10.1.2.2;2.2. Agricultural Land Application Concepts and Terminologies;373
10.1.3;3. Planning and Management of Agricultural Land Application;379
10.1.3.1;3.1. Planning;379
10.1.3.1.1;3.1.1. Planning Before Land Application;379
10.1.3.1.2;3.1.2. Planning During Land Application;379
10.1.3.1.3;3.1.3. Planning After Land Application;379
10.1.3.2;3.2. Nutrient Management;379
10.1.3.2.1;3.2.1. Nutrient Management Goal;379
10.1.3.2.2;3.2.2. Farm Identification Elements for Nutrient Management;380
10.1.3.2.3;3.2.3. Nutrient Management Plan Summary Elements;381
10.1.3.2.4;3.2.4. Nutrient Allocation and Use Elements;381
10.1.3.2.5;3.2.5. Restrictions Elements;381
10.1.4;4. Design of Land Application Process;382
10.1.4.1;4.1. Biosolids Application Rate Scenario;382
10.1.4.2;4.2. Step-by-Step Procedures for Biosolids Application Rate Determination;384
10.1.4.2.1;4.2.1. Determining Unit Nitrogen Fertilizer Rate and Crop Nitrogen Fertilizer Rate;386
10.1.4.2.2;4.2.2. Determining Crop Nitrogen Deficit;386
10.1.4.2.3;4.2.3. Determining First-Year Plant Available Nitrogen (PAN 0–1);388
10.1.4.2.4;4.2.4. Determining Biosolids Application Rate or Agronomic Rate;388
10.1.4.2.5;4.2.5. Determining Maximum Allowable Biosolids Application;389
10.1.4.2.6;4.2.6. Determine Phosphorus Balance;389
10.1.4.3;4.3. Simplified Sludge Application Rate Determination;390
10.1.5;5. Operation and Maintenance;391
10.1.5.1;5.1. Operation and Maintenance Process Considerations;391
10.1.5.2;5.2. Process Control Considerations;391
10.1.5.3;5.3. Maintenance Requirements and Safety Issues;391
10.1.6;6. Normal Operating Procedures;392
10.1.6.1;6.1. Startup Procedures;392
10.1.6.2;6.2. Routine Land Application Procedures;392
10.1.6.3;6.3. Shutdown Procedures;392
10.1.7;7. Emergency Operating Procedures;392
10.1.7.1;7.1. Loss of Power or Fuel;392
10.1.7.2;7.2. Loss of Other Biosolids Treatment Units;392
10.1.8;8. Environmental Impacts;393
10.1.9;9. Land Application Costs;394
10.1.10;10. Practical Applications and Design Examples;394
10.1.10.1;10.1. Biosolids Pretreatment Before Agricultural Land Application;394
10.1.10.1.1;Solution;394
10.1.10.2;10.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Biosolids Land Application;395
10.1.10.2.1;Solution;395
10.1.10.3;10.3. DesignWorksheet for Determining the Agronomic Rate;396
10.1.10.3.1;Solution;396
10.1.10.4;10.4. Calculation for Available Mineralized Organic Nitrogen;396
10.1.10.4.1;Solution;396
10.1.10.5;10.5. Risk Assessment Approach Versus Alternative Regulatory Approach to Land Application of Biosolids;396
10.1.10.5.1;Risk Assessment Approach;396
10.1.10.5.2;Alternative Regulatory Approach: Best Available Technology;400
10.1.10.5.3;Alternative Regulatory Approach: Noncontamination Approach;400
10.1.10.6;10.6. Tracking Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rates on Land Application Sites;401
10.1.10.6.1;Solution;401
10.1.10.7;10.7. Management of Nitrogen in the Soils and Biosolids;401
10.1.10.7.1;Solution;401
10.1.10.8;10.8. Converting Dry Tons of Biosolids per Acre to Pound of Nutrient per Acre;404
10.1.10.8.1;Solution;405
10.1.10.9;10.9. Converting Percent Content to Pound per Dry Ton;405
10.1.10.9.1;Solution;405
10.1.10.10;10.10. Calculating Net Primary Nutrient Crop Need;405
10.1.10.10.1;Solution;405
10.1.10.11;10.11. Calculating the Components of Plant Available Nitrogen in Biosolids;406
10.1.10.11.1;Solution;407
10.1.10.12;10.12. Calculating the First Year PAN 0–1 from Biosolids;407
10.1.10.12.1;10.12.1. Determining the First-Year PAN 0–1 from Lime-Stabilized Biosolids;407
10.1.10.12.1.1;Solution;407
10.1.10.12.2;10.12.2. Determining the First-Year PAN 0–1 from Aerobically Digested Biosolids;408
10.1.10.12.2.1;Solution;408
10.1.10.13;10.13. Calculating Biosolids Carryover Plant Available Nitrogen;408
10.1.10.13.1;10.13.1. Single Previous Biosolids Application;408
10.1.10.13.2;10.13.2. Multiple Previous Biosolids Applications;409
10.1.10.13.2.1;Solution;409
10.1.10.14;10.14. Calculating Nitrogen-Based Agronomic Rate;409
10.1.10.14.1;Solution;411
10.1.10.15;10.15. Calculating the Required Land for Biosolids Application;412
10.1.10.15.1;Solution;412
10.1.10.16;10.16. Calculating the Nitrogen-Based and the Phosphorus-Based Agronomic Rates for Agricultural Land Application;412
10.1.10.16.1;Step 1. Nitrogen-Based Agronomic Rate;413
10.1.10.16.2;Step 2. Phosphorus-Based Agronomic Rate;414
10.1.10.17;10.17. Calculating the Lime-Based Agronomic Rate for Agricultural Land Application;414
10.1.10.17.1;Solution;414
10.1.10.18;10.18. Calculating Potassium Fertilizer Needs;415
10.1.10.18.1;Solution;415
10.1.10.19;10.19. Biosolids Land Application Costs and Cost Adjustment;416
10.1.10.19.1;Solution;417
10.1.11;11. Glossary of Land Application Terms;418
10.1.12;Nomenclature;422
10.1.13;References;424
10.1.14;Appendix A;428
10.1.15;Appendix B;430
10.1.16;Appendix C;431
11;Chapter 8;433
11.1;Landfilling Engineering and Management;433
11.1.1;1. Introduction;433
11.1.2;2. Regulations and Pollutant Standards for Biosolids Landfilling;434
11.1.3;3. Types of Biosolids for Landfilling;437
11.1.4;4. Requirements of Biosolids Characteristics for Landfilling;439
11.1.4.1;4.1. Class A Pathogen Requirements;439
11.1.4.2;4.2. Class B Pathogen Requirements;441
11.1.4.3;4.3. Other Biosolids Characteristics for Landfilling;441
11.1.4.3.1;4.3.1. Reduction of Vector Attraction;441
11.1.4.3.2;4.3.2. Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Biosolids;443
11.1.4.4;4.4. Analytical Methods in Determining Biosolids Characteristics;445
11.1.5;5. Biosolids Treatment for Landfilling;445
11.1.5.1;5.1. Conditioning;446
11.1.5.2;5.2. Thickening;446
11.1.5.3;5.3. Stabilization;447
11.1.5.3.1;5.3.1. Alkali Stabilization;447
11.1.5.3.2;5.3.2. Digestion (Anaerobic and Aerobic);448
11.1.5.3.3;5.3.3. Composting;449
11.1.5.3.4;5.3.4. Heat Drying;449
11.1.5.4;5.4. Dewatering;449
11.1.6;6. Design of Biosolids Landfilling;450
11.1.6.1;6.1. Landfilling Application for Biosolids;450
11.1.6.2;6.2. Biosolids Monofill;451
11.1.6.2.1;6.2.1. Site Selection;451
11.1.6.2.2;6.2.2. Methods of Biosolids Landfilling;452
11.1.6.3;6.3. Design Criteria;454
11.1.6.3.1;6.3.1. Area Requirement;454
11.1.6.3.2;6.3.2. Landfill Size Estimation;454
11.1.6.3.3;6.3.3. Landfill Liner;454
11.1.6.3.4;6.3.4. Gas Collection Requirement;455
11.1.6.3.5;6.3.5. Landfill Operation and Maintenance;455
11.1.6.3.6;6.3.6. Limitation of Landfilling;456
11.1.7;7. Case Study and Example;456
11.1.7.1;7.1. Future Trends in Biosolids Landfilling;456
11.1.7.2;7.2. Calculation Examples;457
11.1.8;References;459
12;Chapter 9;461
12.1;Ocean Disposal Technology and Assessment;461
12.1.1;1. Introduction;462
12.1.2;2. Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter—London Convention 1972;464
12.1.3;3. Waste Assessment Guidance;464
12.1.4;4. Waste Assessment Audit;465
12.1.5;5. Waste Characterization Process and Disposal Permit System;467
12.1.5.1;5.1. Assessment of Material for Disposal;467
12.1.5.2;5.2. Chemical Screening;468
12.1.5.3;5.3. Biological Testing;469
12.1.5.4;5.4. Ecological and Human Health Risk Assessment;472
12.1.5.5;5.5. Water Quality Issues;475
12.1.6;6. Disposal Site Selection;475
12.1.7;7. Disposal Site Monitoring;476
12.1.7.1;7.1. Acoustic Geophysical Surveys;477
12.1.7.1.1;7.1.1. Side-Scan Sonar;477
12.1.7.1.2;7.1.2. Multibeam Bathymetry;477
12.1.7.1.3;7.1.3. Sub-Bottom Profiler;478
12.1.7.2;7.2. Currents and Sediment Transport Survey;478
12.1.7.3;7.3. Chemical and Biological Sampling;478
12.1.7.4;7.4. Case Studies;479
12.1.7.4.1;7.4.1. Black Point Dredged Material Ocean Disposal Site, Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada;479
12.1.7.4.2;7.4.2. Amherst Cove Dredged Material Ocean Disposal Site, Prince Edward Island, Canada;481
12.1.8;8. Land-Based Discharges of Wastes to the Sea: Engineering Design Considerations;481
12.1.8.1;8.1. Ocean Outfall System;482
12.1.8.2;8.2. Initial Dilution;484
12.1.8.3;8.3. Dispersion Dilution;484
12.1.8.4;8.4. Decay Dilution;484
12.1.8.5;8.5. Outfall Design Criteria;485
12.1.8.5.1;8.5.1. Velocity of Liquid Waste in Pipeline;485
12.1.8.5.2;8.5.2. Diffuser Orientation, Size, and Length;485
12.1.8.6;8.6. Design Example;486
12.1.9;9. Marine Pollution Prevention (The City of Los Angeles Biosolids Environmental Management System);487
12.1.10;10. Ocean Disposal Technology Assessment and Conclusions;489
12.1.11;Nomenclature;490
12.1.12;References;491
13;Chapter 10;496
13.1;Combustion and Incineration Engineering;496
13.1.1;1. Introduction to Incineration;496
13.1.2;2. Process Analysis of Incineration Systems;497
13.1.2.1;2.1. Stoichiometry;497
13.1.2.1.1;2.1.1. Gas Laws;498
13.1.2.1.1.1;Example 1;498
13.1.2.1.2;2.1.2. Material Balances;499
13.1.2.1.2.1;Example 2;499
13.1.2.1.2.2;Example 3;501
13.1.2.1.3;2.1.3. Heat Balances;502
13.1.2.1.3.1;Example 4;505
13.1.2.1.4;2.1.4. Equilibrium;507
13.1.2.1.4.1;Example 5;507
13.1.2.1.5;2.1.5. Kinetics;510
13.1.2.1.5.1;2.1.5.1. Kinetics of Carbon Monoxide Oxidation;510
13.1.2.1.5.2;2.1.5.2. Kinetics of Soot Oxidation;510
13.1.2.2;2.2. Thermal Decomposition (Pyrolysis);511
13.1.2.2.1;2.2.1. Pyrolysis Time;512
13.1.2.2.2;2.2.2. Pyrolysis Products;513
13.1.2.2.3;2.2.3. Decomposition Kinetics;515
13.1.2.3;2.3. Mass Burning;516
13.1.2.4;2.4. Suspension Burning;519
13.1.2.5;2.5. Air Pollution from Incineration;519
13.1.2.5.1;2.5.1. Mineral Particulate;521
13.1.2.5.2;2.5.2. Combustible Solids, Liquids, and Gases;522
13.1.2.5.3;2.5.3. Acid Gases;524
13.1.2.5.4;2.5.4. Nitrogen Oxides;524
13.1.2.5.5;2.5.5. Air Toxics;525
13.1.2.6;2.6. Fluid Mechanics in Furnace Systems;527
13.1.2.6.1;2.6.1. Jet Behavior;528
13.1.2.6.2;2.6.2. Buoyancy;530
13.1.2.6.2.1;Case 1;531
13.1.2.6.2.2;Case 2;531
13.1.2.6.2.3;Example 6;532
13.1.3;3. Incineration Systems for Municipal Solid Waste;532
13.1.3.1;3.1. Receipt and Storage;536
13.1.3.2;3.2. Charging;537
13.1.3.3;3.3. Enclosures;539
13.1.3.4;3.4. Grates and Hearths;541
13.1.3.4.1;3.4.1. Stationary Hearth;541
13.1.3.4.2;3.4.2. Rotary Kiln;541
13.1.3.4.2.1;3.4.2.1. Transportable Configurations;544
13.1.3.4.2.2;3.4.2.2. O’Cconner Combustor Rotary Kiln Configuration;544
13.1.3.4.2.3;3.4.3. Stationary Grates;544
13.1.3.4.2.4;3.4.4. Mechanical Grates: Batch Operations;544
13.1.3.4.2.4.1;3.4.4.1. Cylindrical Furnace Grates;544
13.1.3.4.2.4.2;3.4.4.2. Rectangular Batch Furnace Grates;545
13.1.3.4.2.5;3.4.5. Mechanical Grates: Continuous Operations;545
13.1.3.4.2.5.1;3.4.5.1. Reciprocating Grate;545
13.1.3.4.2.5.2;3.4.5.2. Rocking Grate;546
13.1.3.4.2.5.3;3.4.5.3. Traveling Grate;546
13.1.3.5;3.5. Combustion Air;547
13.1.3.6;3.6. Flue Gas Conditioning;548
13.1.3.6.1;3.6.1. Cooling by Water Evaporation;549
13.1.3.6.2;3.6.2. Cooling by Heat Withdrawal;550
13.1.3.7;3.7. Air Pollution Control;550
13.1.3.8;3.8. Special Topics;555
13.1.3.8.1;3.8.1. Heat Recovery;555
13.1.3.8.1.1;3.8.1.1. Energy Markets;555
13.1.3.8.1.2;3.8.1.2. Corrosion Issues and Energy Recovery;557
13.1.3.8.2;3.8.2. Burning in Suspension;559
13.1.3.8.2.1;3.8.2.1. Spreader Stoker;559
13.1.3.8.2.2;3.8.2.2. Suspension Burning;560
13.1.3.8.3;3.8.3. Residue Processing and Disposal;561
13.1.3.8.3.1;3.8.3.1. Ash Conveyance and Discharge;562
13.1.3.8.3.2;3.8.3.2. Ducts, Boilers, and Breeching;563
13.1.3.8.3.3;3.8.3.3. Residue Properties;563
13.1.3.8.4;3.8.4. Pyrolysis and other Gasification Systems;564
13.1.3.8.4.1;3.8.4.1. Early Process Developments;564
13.1.3.8.4.1.1;3.8.4.1.1. Indirect Heating;564
13.1.3.8.4.1.2;3.8.4.1.2. Zoned Partial Combustion;564
13.1.3.8.4.1.3;3.8.4.1.3. Flash Pyrolysis;565
13.1.3.8.4.2;3.8.4.2. Gasification;565
13.1.3.8.4.2.1;3.8.4.2.1. General;566
13.1.3.8.4.2.2;3.8.4.2.2. TPS Termiska Processor–Gasification by Partial Combustion;567
13.1.3.8.4.2.3;3.8.4.2.3. SilvaGas Process—Gasification by Pyrolysis and Steam Reforming;569
13.1.3.8.4.2.4;3.8.4.2.4. Thermoselect® : Gasification of Raw MSW by Pyrolysis;571
13.1.3.8.5;3.8.5. Modular Incineration Systems for Municipal and Commercial Wastes;575
13.1.4;4. Thermal Processing Systems for Biosolids;577
13.1.4.1;4.1. Introduction;577
13.1.4.2;4.2. Objectives and General Approach;579
13.1.4.3;4.3. Low-Range (Ambient, 100DegreeC) Drying Processes;583
13.1.4.3.1;4.3.1. Drying Beds;584
13.1.4.3.2;4.3.2. Direct-Fired Systems;585
13.1.4.3.2.1;4.3.2.1. Flash Dryer;585
13.1.4.3.2.2;4.3.2.2. Rotary Dryer/Pelletizer;587
13.1.4.3.3;4.3.3. Indirect-Fired Systems;590
13.1.4.3.3.1;4.3.3.1. Porcupine, Bepex, and Other Dryers;590
13.1.4.3.3.2;4.3.3.2. Pelletech Dryer;591
13.1.4.4;4.4. Mid-Range (250Degree to 1000DegreeC or 300Degree to 1800DegreeF) Combustion Processes;593
13.1.4.4.1;4.4.1. General;593
13.1.4.4.1.1;4.4.1.1. Multiple Hearth Systems;594
13.1.4.4.1.2;4.4.1.2. Fluidized Bed Systems;596
13.1.4.4.2;4.4.2. Pyrolysis Mode Systems;598
13.1.4.4.2.1;4.4.2.1. Multiple Hearth Systems;598
13.1.4.4.2.2;4.4.2.2. Fluidized Bed Systems;600
13.1.4.4.3;4.4.3. Full Combustion Mode Systems;600
13.1.4.4.3.1;4.4.3.1. Multiple Hearth Systems;601
13.1.4.4.3.2;4.4.3.2. Fluidized Bed Systems;602
13.1.4.4.3.3;4.4.3.3. Infrared Systems;604
13.1.4.5;4.5. High-Range (>1100DegreeC or >2000DegreeF) Combustion Processes;605
13.1.4.6;4.6. Discussion;606
13.1.5;5. Economics of Incineration;607
13.1.5.1;5.1. General;609
13.1.5.2;5.2. Capital Investment;611
13.1.5.3;5.3. Operating Costs;611
13.1.6;6. An Approach to Design;611
13.1.6.1;6.1. Characterize the Waste;611
13.1.6.2;6.2. Lay Out the System in Blocks;614
13.1.6.3;6.3. Establish Performance Objectives;614
13.1.6.4;6.4. Develop Heat and Material Balances;614
13.1.6.5;6.5. Develop Incinerator Envelope;614
13.1.6.6;6.6. Evaluate Incinerator Dynamics;616
13.1.6.7;6.7. Develop the Design of Auxiliary Equipment;616
13.1.6.8;6.8. Review Heat and Material Balances;616
13.1.6.9;6.9. Build and Operate;616
13.1.7;Appendix: Waste Thermochemical Data;616
13.1.7.1;A.1. Refuse Composition;617
13.1.7.2;A.2. SolidWaste Properties;618
13.1.7.2.1;A.2.1. Thermochemical Analysis;618
13.1.7.3;A.3. Ash Composition;618
13.1.8;Nomenclature;618
13.1.9;References;619
14;Chapter 11;623
14.1;Combustion and Incineration Management;623
14.1.1;1. Introduction;623
14.1.1.1;1.1. Overview of Biosolids Incineration;623
14.1.1.2;1.2. Overview of the Dewatering Process;624
14.1.1.3;1.3. Overview of Air Pollution Control Devices;625
14.1.1.4;1.4. Overview of the Ash-Handling System;627
14.1.1.5;1.5. U.S. Federal and State Regulations;629
14.1.1.5.1;1.5.1. Overview of Emission Regulations for Sludge Incineration;629
14.1.1.5.2;1.5.2. Overview of 40 CFR Part 503 Subpart E;629
14.1.1.5.2.1;1.5.2.1. Mercury and Beryllium;629
14.1.1.5.2.2;1.5.2.2. Lead;631
14.1.1.5.2.3;1.5.2.3. Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, and Nickel;631
14.1.1.5.2.4;1.5.2.4. Total Hydrocarbons;632
14.1.1.5.2.5;1.5.2.5. Management Requirement for Biosolids Incineration;634
14.1.1.5.3;1.5.3. Other Regulations;637
14.1.2;2. Operation and Management of the Multiple Hearth Furnace;637
14.1.2.1;2.1. Process Description;637
14.1.2.2;2.2. Design and Operating Parameters;639
14.1.2.3;2.3. Performance Evaluation, Management, and Troubleshooting of the Multiple Hearth Furnace;642
14.1.2.3.1;2.3.1. Performance Evaluation;642
14.1.2.3.2;2.3.2. Management and Maintenance;644
14.1.2.3.3;2.3.3. Troubleshooting;645
14.1.3;3. Operation and Management of the Fluidized Bed Furnace;649
14.1.3.1;3.1. Process Description;649
14.1.3.2;3.2. Design and Operating Parameters;650
14.1.3.3;3.3. Performance Evaluation, Management, and Troubleshooting of the Fluidized Bed Furnace;651
14.1.3.4;3.4. Fluidized Bed Incinerator with Improved Design;653
14.1.3.5;3.5. Comparison Between Multiple Hearth and Fluidized Bed Furnaces;655
14.1.4;4. Other Incineration Processes;656
14.1.4.1;4.1. Electric Infrared Incinerators;656
14.1.4.2;4.2. Co-Incineration;656
14.1.4.2.1;4.2.1. Co-Incineration in Sludge Incinerators;657
14.1.4.2.2;4.2.2. Co-Incineration in Solid Waste Incinerators;658
14.1.4.3;4.3. Other Sludge Incineration Techniques;659
14.1.5;Nomenclature;660
14.1.6;References;660
15;Chapter 12;662
15.1;Beneficial Utilization of Biosolids;662
15.1.1;1. Introduction;662
15.1.2;2. Federal Biosolids Regulations;664
15.1.2.1;2.1. Background;664
15.1.2.2;2.2. Risk Assessment Basis of Part 503;665
15.1.2.3;2.3. Overview of Part 503;666
15.1.2.4;2.4. Requirements for Land Application;666
15.1.2.5;2.5. Requirements for Biosolids Placed on a Surface Disposal Site;668
15.1.2.6;2.6. Requirements for Pathogen and Vector Attraction Reduction;668
15.1.2.7;2.7. Requirements for Biosolids Fired in Incinerators;668
15.1.2.8;2.8. Enforcement of Part 503 and Reporting Requirements;670
15.1.2.9;2.9. Relationship of the Federal Requirements to State Requirements;670
15.1.3;3. Land Application of Biosolids;671
15.1.3.1;3.1. Perspective;671
15.1.3.2;3.2. Principles and Design Criteria;673
15.1.3.2.1;3.2.1. Preliminary Planning;673
15.1.3.2.2;3.2.2. Site Selection;674
15.1.3.2.3;3.2.3. Part 503 Criteria for Determination of Design Application Rates;674
15.1.3.3;3.3. Options for Meeting Land Application Requirements;674
15.1.3.3.1;3.3.1. Option 1: Exceptional Quality (EQ) Biosolids;675
15.1.3.3.2;3.3.2. Option 2: Pollutant Concentration (PC) Biosolids;677
15.1.3.3.3;3.3.3. Option 3: Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rate (CPLR) Biosolids;680
15.1.3.3.4;3.3.4. Option 4: Annual Pollutant Loading Rate (APLR) Biosolids;681
15.1.3.4;3.4. Site Restrictions, General Requirements, and Management Practices;683
15.1.3.5;3.5. Process Design;683
15.1.3.6;3.6. Facilities Design;684
15.1.3.7;3.7. Facility Management, Operations, and Monitoring;685
15.1.4;4. Surface Disposal of Biosolids;685
15.1.4.1;4.1. Perspective;685
15.1.4.2;4.2. Differentiation Among Surface Disposal, Storage, and Land Application;686
15.1.4.3;4.3. Pollutant Limits for Biosolids;686
15.1.4.4;4.4. Pathogens and Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements;687
15.1.4.5;4.5. Frequency of Monitoring Requirements;688
15.1.4.6;4.6. Regulatory Requirements for Surface Disposal of Domestic Septage;689
15.1.5;5. Incineration of Biosolids as an Energy Source;690
15.1.5.1;5.1. Perspective;690
15.1.5.2;5.2. Recovery of Energy from Biosolids;691
15.1.5.2.1;5.2.1. Treatment of Digester Gas;691
15.1.5.2.2;5.2.2. Gas-Burning Equipment;692
15.1.5.2.2.1;5.2.2.1. Corrosion Factors;692
15.1.5.2.2.2;5.2.2.2. Boilers;692
15.1.5.2.2.3;5.2.2.3. Prime Movers;692
15.1.5.2.2.4;5.2.2.4. Reciprocating Engines;693
15.1.5.2.2.5;5.2.2.5. Gas Turbines;694
15.1.5.2.3;5.2.3. Generators;694
15.1.5.3;5.3. Factors Affecting Heat Recovery;694
15.1.5.4;5.4. Pollutant Limits for Biosolids Fired in Incinerators;695
15.1.5.4.1;5.4.1. Beryllium and Mercury Pollutant Limits;695
15.1.5.4.2;5.4.2. Lead, Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, and Nickel Pollutant Limits;695
15.1.5.4.3;5.4.3. Total Hydrocarbons;696
15.1.5.4.4;5.4.4. Frequency of Monitoring Requirements for Biosolids Incineration;698
15.1.6;6. Other Uses of Wastewater Solids and Solids by-Products;699
15.1.7;7. Examples;700
15.1.7.1;7.1. Example 1: Determination of the Annual Whole Sludge (Biosolids) Application Rate (AWSAR);700
15.1.7.2;7.2. Example 2: Determination of the Amount of Nitrogen Provided by the AWSAR Relative to the Agronomic Rate;700
15.1.8;Nomenclature;701
15.1.9;References;702
16;Chapter 13;706
16.1;Process Selection of Biosolids Management Systems;706
16.1.1;1. Introduction;706
16.1.2;2. The Logic of Process Selection;707
16.1.2.1;2.1. Identification of Relevant Criteria;708
16.1.2.2;2.2. Identification of System Options;708
16.1.2.3;2.3. System Selection Procedure;708
16.1.2.3.1;2.3.1. Base and Secondary Alternatives;708
16.1.2.3.2;2.3.2. Choosing a Base Alternative: First Stage;710
16.1.2.3.2.1;2.3.2.1. Determination of Practical Base Utilization/Disposal Options;710
16.1.2.3.2.2;2.3.2.2. Determine Practical Base Treatment Systems;711
16.1.2.3.2.3;2.3.2.3. Determine Practical Base Treatment/Utilization/Disposal Combinations;711
16.1.2.3.3;2.3.3. Choosing a Base Alternative: Second Stage;712
16.1.2.3.4;2.3.4. Third Stage;712
16.1.2.3.5;2.3.5. Subsequent Stages;716
16.1.2.4;2.4. Parallel Elements;716
16.1.2.5;2.5. Example of Process Selection at Eugene, Oregon;719
16.1.3;3. Sizing of Equipment;722
16.1.4;4. Approaches to Sidestream Management;725
16.1.4.1;4.1. Sidestream Production;725
16.1.4.2;4.2. Sidestream Quality and Potential Problems;726
16.1.4.3;4.3. General Approaches to Sidestream Problems;727
16.1.4.4;4.4. Elimination of Sidestream;727
16.1.4.5;4.5. Modification of Upstream Solids Processing Steps;727
16.1.4.6;4.6. Change in Timing, Return Rate, or Return Point;728
16.1.4.7;4.7. Modification ofWastewater Treatment Facilities;729
16.1.4.8;4.8. Separate Treatment of Sidestreams;730
16.1.4.8.1;4.8.1. Anaerobic Digester Supernatant;730
16.1.4.8.2;4.8.2. Thermal Conditioning Liquor;732
16.1.5;5. Contingency Planning;736
16.1.5.1;5.1. Contingency Problems and Their Solutions;736
16.1.5.2;5.2. Example of Contingency Planning for Breakdowns;737
16.1.5.2.1;5.2.1. Case A: All Units Available;737
16.1.5.2.2;5.2.2. Case B: Thickener Is Out of Service;738
16.1.5.2.3;5.2.3. Case C: One Digester Is Out of Service;739
16.1.5.2.4;5.2.4. Case D: One Dewatering Machine Is Out of Service;739
16.1.5.2.5;5.2.5. Case E: Truck Strike Lasting a Month;740
16.1.6;6. Site Variations;740
16.1.7;7. Energy Conservation;740
16.1.8;8. Cost-Effective Analyses;741
16.1.9;9. Checklists;742
16.1.10;10. U.S. Practices in Managing Biosolids;744
16.1.10.1;10.1. Primary Biosolids Processing Trains;744
16.1.10.2;10.2. Secondary Biosolids Processing Trains;749
16.1.10.3;10.3. Combined Biosolids Processing Trains;750
16.1.10.4;10.4. Types of Unit Processes;752
16.1.10.4.1;10.4.1. Anaerobic Digestion;752
16.1.10.4.2;10.4.2. Filtration;753
16.1.10.4.3;10.4.3. Centrifuges;753
16.1.10.4.4;10.4.4. Incineration;753
16.1.10.4.5;10.4.5. Other Processes;754
16.1.11;References;754
17;Appendix: Conversion Factors for Environmental Engineers;759
17.1;1. CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS;760
17.2;2. BASIC AND SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS;798
17.3;3. DERIVED UNITS AND QUANTITIES;799
17.4;4. PHYSICAL CONSTANTS;801
17.5;5. PROPERTIES OFWATER;801
17.6;6. PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS (COMPLIMENTS OFTHE LENOX INSTITUTE OF WATER TECHNOLOGY);802
18;Subject Index;803