Xu Sciences of Geodesy - I

Advances and Future Directions
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-642-11741-1
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Wasserzeichen (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 488 Seiten

This series of reference books describes sciences of different elds in and around geodesy with independent chapters. Each chapter covers an individual eld and describes the history, theory, objective, technology, development, highlights of research and applications. In addition, problems as well as future directions are discussed. The subjects of this reference book include Absolute and Relative Gravimetry, Adaptively Robust Kalman Filters with Applications in Navigation, Airborne Gravity Field Determination, Analytic Orbit Theory, Deformation and Tectonics, Earth Rotation, Equivalence of GPS Algorithms and its Inference, Marine Geodesy, Satellite Laser Ranging, Superconducting Gravimetry and Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry. These are individual subjects in and around geodesy and are for the rst time combined in a unique book which may be used for teaching or for learning basic principles of many subjects related to geodesy. The material is suitable to provide a general overview of geodetic sciences for high-level geodetic researchers, educators as well as engineers and students. Some of the chapters are written to ll literature blanks of the related areas. Most chapters are written by well-known scientists throughout the world in the related areas. The chapters are ordered by their titles. Summaries of the individual chapters and introductions of their authors and co-authors are as follows. Chapter 1 'Absolute and Relative Gravimetry' provides an overview of the gravimetric methods to determine most accurately the gravity acceleration at given locations.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Xu, Guochang

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;4
2;Contents;15
3;Contributors;22
4;1 Absolute and Relative Gravimetry;24
4.1;1.1 Introduction;24
4.2;1.2 Characteristics of Absolute Gravimetry;25
4.2.1;1.2.1 General Aspects;25
4.2.2;1.2.2 Objectives of Geo-scientific and State-geodetic Surveys;26
4.3;1.3 Measurements with Free-Fall Absolute Gravimeters;28
4.3.1;1.3.1 Principles of FG5 Gravimeters;29
4.3.2;1.3.2 Observation Equation;30
4.3.3;1.3.3 Operational Procedures with FG5-220;32
4.3.4;1.3.4 Accuracy and Instrumental Offset;35
4.4;1.4 Relative Gravimetry;41
4.4.1;1.4.1 Principles of Spring Gravimeters;42
4.4.2;1.4.2 Observation Equation;44
4.4.3;1.4.3 Regional and Local Surveys with Scintrex SC-4492;45
4.4.4;1.4.4 Microgravimetric Measurements;49
4.4.5;1.4.5 Instrumental Drift;51
4.5;1.5 Reduction of Non-tectonic Gravity Variations;53
4.5.1;1.5.1 Earth's Body and Ocean Tides;54
4.5.2;1.5.2 Polar Motion;57
4.5.3;1.5.3 Atmospheric Mass Movements;60
4.5.4;1.5.4 Groundwater Variations;61
4.6;1.6 Gravity Changes: Examples;61
4.6.1;1.6.1 Hydrology: Groundwater Variations in Hannover;62
4.6.2;1.6.2 Tectonics: Isostatic Land Uplift in Fennoscandia;63
4.7;References;66
5;2 Adaptively Robust Kalman Filters with Applications in Navigation;72
5.1;2.1 Introduction;73
5.2;2.2 The Principle of Adaptively Robust Kalman Filtering;76
5.3;2.3 Properties of the Adaptive Kalman Filter;79
5.3.1;2.3.1 Difference of State Estimate;79
5.3.2;2.3.2 The Expectation of the State Estimate of the Adaptive Filter;80
5.3.3;2.3.3 Posterior Precision Evaluation;81
5.4;2.4 Three Kinds of Learning Statistics;83
5.4.1;2.4.1 Learning Statistic Constructed by State Discrepancy;83
5.4.2;2.4.2 Learning Statistic Constructed by Predicted Residual Vector;84
5.4.3;2.4.3 Learning Statistic Constructed by the Ratio of Variance Components;85
5.4.4;2.4.4 Learning Statistic Constructed by Velocity;86
5.5;2.5 Four Kinds of Adaptive Factors;86
5.5.1;2.5.1 Adaptive Factor by Three-Segment Function;86
5.5.2;2.5.2 Adaptive Factor by Two-Segment Function;87
5.5.3;2.5.3 Adaptive Factor by Exponential Function;87
5.5.4;2.5.4 Adaptive Factor by Zero and One;88
5.5.5;2.5.5 Actual Computation and Analysis;89
5.6;2.6 Comparison of Two Fading Filters and Adaptively Robust Filter;91
5.6.1;2.6.1 Principles of Two Kinds of Fading Filters;92
5.6.2;2.6.2 Comparison of Fading Filter and Adaptive Filter;94
5.6.3;2.6.3 Actual Computation and Analysis;95
5.7;2.7 Comparison of Sage Adaptive Filter and Adaptively Robust Filter;97
5.7.1;2.7.1 IAE Windowing Method;97
5.7.2;2.7.2 RAE Windowing Method;98
5.7.3;2.7.3 The Problems of the Windowing Estimation for Covariance Matrix of Kinematic Model;99
5.8;2.8 Some Application Examples;100
5.9;References;103
6;3 Airborne Gravity Field Determination;106
6.1;3.1 Introduction;106
6.2;3.2 Principles of Airborne Gravimetry;108
6.3;3.3 Filtering of Airborne Gravity;112
6.4;3.4 Some Results of Large-Scale Government Airborne Surveys;114
6.5;3.5 Downward Continuation of Airborne Gravimetry;116
6.6;3.6 Use of Airborne Gravimetry for Geoid Determination;119
6.6.1;3.6.1 Case Story of Mongolian Geoid;120
6.7;3.7 Conclusions and Outlook;124
6.8;References;126
7;4 Analytic Orbit Theory;128
7.1;4.1 Introduction;128
7.2;4.2 Perturbed Equation of Satellite Motion;130
7.2.1;4.2.1 Lagrangian Perturbed Equation of Satellite Motion;131
7.2.2;4.2.2 Gaussian Perturbed Equation of Satellite Motion;133
7.2.3;4.2.3 Keplerian Motion;135
7.3;4.3 Singularity-Free and Simplified Equations;135
7.3.1;4.3.1 Problem of Singularity of the Solutions;136
7.3.2;4.3.2 Disturbed Equations in the Case of Circular Orbit;137
7.3.3;4.3.3 Disturbed Equations in the Case of Equatorial Orbit;138
7.3.4;4.3.4 Disturbed Equations in the Case of Circular and Equatorial Orbit;138
7.3.5;4.3.5 Singularity-Free Disturbed Equations of Motion;139
7.3.6;4.3.6 Simplified Singularity-Free Disturbed Equations of Motion;140
7.3.7;4.3.7 Singularity-Free Gaussian Equations of Motion;140
7.4;4.4 Solutions of Extraterrestrial Disturbances;141
7.4.1;4.4.1 Key Notes to the Problems;141
7.4.2;4.4.2 Solutions of Disturbance of Solar Radiation Pressure;142
7.4.2.1;Three Approximations ;142
7.4.2.2;Discretisation and Solution ;143
7.4.2.3;Properties of the Solution ;144
7.4.2.4;4.4.2.1 Solutions via Gaussian Perturbed Equations;144
7.4.2.5;Gaussian Perturbed Equations;144
7.4.2.6;Characters of Gaussian Perturbed Equations;146
7.4.2.7;Solutions of Gaussian Perturbed Equations;147
7.4.2.8;Properties of the Solution;149
7.4.3;4.4.3 Solutions of Disturbance of Atmospheric Drag;149
7.4.3.1;4.4.3.1 Solutions via Gaussian Perturbed Equations;150
7.4.3.2;Air Drag Force Vector for Gaussian Perturbed Equations;150
7.4.3.3;Gaussian Perturbed Equations and the Solutions;151
7.4.4;4.4.4 Solutions of Disturbance of the Sun;152
7.4.4.1;Potential Function of the Sun;152
7.4.4.2;Disturbed Equation of Motion and the Solutions;153
7.4.5;4.4.5 Solutions of Disturbance of the Moon;157
7.4.5.1;Discretisation and Solution;158
7.4.6;4.4.6 Solutions of Disturbance of Planets;159
7.4.7;4.4.7 Summary;159
7.5;4.5 Solutions of Geopotential Perturbations;159
7.5.1;Principle of the Derivations;160
7.6;4.6 Principle of Numerical Orbit Determination;164
7.6.1;Limitations of the Numerical Orbit Determination;166
7.7;4.7 Principle of Analytic Orbit Determination;167
7.7.1;Real-Time Ability of Analytic Orbit Determination;169
7.7.2;Properties of Analytic Orbit Determination;169
7.7.2.1;Initial Time Selection;169
7.7.2.2;Using General Models for Second-Order Geopotential Disturbances;169
7.8;4.8 Summary and Discussions;170
7.8.1;Summary;170
7.8.2;Discussions;170
7.8.2.1;Simplified Singularity-Free Equations of Motion;170
7.8.2.2;Analytic Solution vs. Numeric Solution;171
7.8.2.3;Potential Functions of the Sun, Moon and Planets;171
7.8.2.4;Confusion of Non-conservative Force with Conservative Effect;171
7.8.2.5;Long-Term Effects in Extraterrestrial Disturbances;172
7.8.2.6;Long-Term and Long Periodic Effects in Short Periodic Disturbances;172
7.8.2.7;Further Studies;172
7.9;References;172
8;5 Deformation and Tectonics: Contribution of GPS Measurements to Plate Tectonics -- Overview and Recent Developments;178
8.1;5.1 Introduction;178
8.2;5.2 Plate Tectonic Models;181
8.3;5.3 Mapping Issues;185
8.4;5.4 Geophysical Corrections for the GPS-Derived Station Positions;190
8.5;5.5 Time-Series Analysis;192
8.6;5.6 GPS and Geodynamics An Example;197
8.7;5.7 Further Developments;202
8.8;References;203
9;6 Earth Rotation;208
9.1;6.1 Reference Systems;209
9.2;6.2 Polar Motion;214
9.3;6.3 Variations of Length-of-Day and UT;218
9.4;6.4 Physical Model of Earth Rotation;221
9.4.1;6.4.1 Balance of Angular Momentum in the Earth System;221
9.4.1.1;6.4.1.1 Angular Momentum Approach;224
9.4.1.2;6.4.1.2 Torque Approach;225
9.4.2;6.4.2 Solid Earth Deformations;226
9.4.2.1;6.4.2.1 Rotational Deformations;227
9.4.2.2;6.4.2.2 Deformations Due to Surface Loads;231
9.4.3;6.4.3 Solution of the Euler--Liouville Equation;235
9.4.3.1;6.4.3.1 Linear Analytical Approach;236
9.4.3.2;6.4.3.2 Non-linear Numerical Approach;238
9.5;6.5 Relation Between Modelled and Observed Variations of Earth Rotation;241
9.6;References;244
10;7 Equivalence of GPS Algorithms and Its Inference;251
10.1;7.1 Introduction;252
10.2;7.2 Equivalence of Undifferenced and Differencing Algorithms;253
10.2.1;7.2.1 Introduction;254
10.2.2;7.2.2 Formation of Equivalent Observation Equations;254
10.2.3;7.2.3 Equivalent Equations of Single Differences;256
10.2.4;7.2.4 Equivalent Equations of Double Differences;259
10.2.5;7.2.5 Equivalent Equations of Triple Differences;261
10.2.6;7.2.6 Method of Dealing with the Reference Parameters;262
10.2.7;7.2.7 Summary of the Unified Equivalent Algorithm;263
10.3;7.3 Equivalence of the Uncombined and Combining Algorithms;264
10.3.1;7.3.1 Uncombined GPS Data Processing Algorithms;264
10.3.1.1;7.3.1.1 Original GPS Observation Equations;264
10.3.1.2;7.3.1.2 Solutions of Uncombined Observation Equations;265
10.3.2;7.3.2 Combining Algorithms of GPS Data Processing;266
10.3.2.1;7.3.2.1 General Combinations;268
10.3.3;7.3.3 Secondary GPS Data Processing Algorithms;268
10.3.3.1;7.3.3.1 In the Case of More Satellites in View;268
10.3.3.2;7.3.3.2 GPS Data Processing Using Secondary ''Observations'';270
10.3.3.3;7.3.3.3 Precision Analysis;271
10.3.4;7.3.4 Summary of the Combining Algorithms;271
10.4;7.4 Parameterisation of the GPS Observation Model;271
10.4.1;7.4.1 Evidence of the Parameterisation Problem of the Undifferenced Observation Model;272
10.4.1.1;7.4.1.1 Evidence from Undifferenced and Differencing Algorithms;272
10.4.1.2;7.4.1.2 Evidence from Uncombined and Combining Algorithms;273
10.4.1.3;7.4.1.3 Evidence from Practice;273
10.4.2;7.4.2 A Method of Uncorrelated Bias Parameterisation;273
10.4.3;7.4.3 Geometry-Free Illustration;279
10.4.4;7.4.4 Correlation Analysis in the Case of Phase--Code Combinations;280
10.4.5;7.4.5 Conclusions and Comments on Parameterisation;281
10.5;7.5 Equivalence of the GPS Data Processing Algorithms;282
10.5.1;7.5.1 Equivalence Theorem of GPS Data Processing Algorithms;282
10.5.2;7.5.2 Optimal Baseline Network Forming and Data Condition;285
10.5.3;7.5.3 Algorithms Using Secondary GPS Observables;286
10.5.4;7.5.4 Non-equivalent Algorithms;288
10.6;7.6 Inferences of Equivalence Principle;288
10.6.1;7.6.1 Diagonalisation Algorithm;288
10.6.2;7.6.2 Separability of the Observation Equation;290
10.6.3;7.6.3 Optimal Ambiguity Search Criteria;291
10.7;7.7 Summary;293
10.8;References;293
11;8 Marine Geodesy;296
11.1;8.1 Introduction;296
11.2;8.2 Bathymetry and Hydrography;297
11.2.1;8.2.1 Scope of Work;297
11.2.1.1;8.2.1.1 Echo Soundings of Oceans and Coastal Waters;298
11.2.1.2;8.2.1.2 Seafloor Maps;299
11.2.1.3;8.2.1.3 Scientific Investigations;299
11.2.1.4;8.2.1.4 Boundary Demarcation and Determination;300
11.2.2;8.2.2 Hydroacoustic Measurements;302
11.2.2.1;8.2.2.1 Basic Principles;302
11.2.2.2;8.2.2.2 Singlebeam Echo Sounders;304
11.2.2.3;8.2.2.3 Multibeam Echo Sounders;305
11.2.2.4;8.2.2.4 Side-Scan Sonar;306
11.2.2.5;8.2.2.5 Sub-bottom Profilers;307
11.3;8.3 Precise Navigation;309
11.3.1;8.3.1 Maps of Coastal Waters and Approach Channels;309
11.3.2;8.3.2 ENC and ECDIS;309
11.3.3;8.3.3 Ship's Attitude;310
11.3.4;8.3.4 Hydrodynamics of Ships;312
11.3.4.1;8.3.4.1 Basics of Squat;313
11.3.4.2;8.3.4.2 SHIPS Method;314
11.3.4.3;8.3.4.3 Squat and Trim;318
11.4;8.4 Conclusion;319
11.5;References;319
12;9 Satellite Laser Ranging;321
12.1;9.1 Background;321
12.1.1;9.1.1 Introduction;322
12.1.2;9.1.2 Basic Principles;323
12.2;9.2 Range Model;326
12.2.1;9.2.1 Atmospheric Delay Correction;328
12.2.2;9.2.2 Centre-of-Mass Correction;331
12.2.3;9.2.3 SLR Station Range and Time Bias;333
12.2.4;9.2.4 Relativistic Range Correction;336
12.3;9.3 Force and Orbital Model;337
12.3.1;9.3.1 Introduction;337
12.3.2;9.3.2 Orbital Modelling;338
12.3.3;9.3.3 Force Model;338
12.3.3.1;9.3.3.1 Gravitational Perturbations;339
12.3.3.2;9.3.3.2 Temporal Changes of the Gravity Field;342
12.3.3.3;9.3.3.3 Three-Body Perturbing Acceleration;343
12.3.3.4;9.3.3.4 General Relativity Contribution to the Perturbing Force;343
12.3.3.5;9.3.3.5 Atmospheric Drag;344
12.3.3.6;9.3.3.6 Solar Radiation Pressure;344
12.3.3.7;9.3.3.7 Earth Radiation Pressure;345
12.3.3.8;9.3.3.8 Other Forces;346
12.3.3.9;9.3.3.9 Empirical Forces;346
12.4;9.4 Calculated Range;346
12.5;9.5 SLR System and Logistics;348
12.5.1;9.5.1 System Configuration;349
12.5.1.1;9.5.1.1 Laser Assembly;349
12.5.1.2;9.5.1.2 Tracking and Mount Control;351
12.5.1.3;9.5.1.3 Data Measurement;352
12.5.1.4;9.5.1.4 Timing;353
12.5.1.5;9.5.1.5 Controller;354
12.5.1.6;9.5.1.6 Processor;354
12.5.1.7;9.5.1.7 Safety;354
12.6;9.6 Network and International Collaboration;354
12.6.1;9.6.1 Tracking Network;355
12.6.2;9.6.2 International Laser Ranging Service;355
12.7;9.7 Summary;356
12.8;References;356
13;10 Superconducting Gravimetry;359
13.1;10.1 Introduction;360
13.2;10.2 Description of the Instrument;363
13.2.1;10.2.1 Gravity Sensing Unit;364
13.2.2;10.2.2 Tilt Compensation System;366
13.2.3;10.2.3 Dewar and Compressor;366
13.2.4;10.2.4 Gravimeter Electronic Package;367
13.2.5;10.2.5 SG Performance;367
13.3;10.3 Site Selection and Observatory Design;368
13.4;10.4 Calibration of the Gravity Sensor;371
13.4.1;10.4.1 Calibration Factor;371
13.4.2;10.4.2 Phase Shift;374
13.5;10.5 Noise Characteristics;375
13.5.1;10.5.1 Noise Magnitude;375
13.5.2;10.5.2 Noise Caused by Misaligned Instrumental Tilt;377
13.6;10.6 Modelling of the Principal Constituents of the Gravity Signal;378
13.6.1;10.6.1 Theoretical Earth Tides and Tidal Acceleration;380
13.6.2;10.6.2 Gravity Variations Induced by the Atmosphere;384
13.6.2.1;10.6.2.1 Empirical Methods;385
13.6.2.2;10.6.2.2 Physical Models;388
13.6.3;10.6.3 Hydrology-Induced Gravity Variation;392
13.6.3.1;10.6.3.1 Bouguer Plate Model;393
13.6.3.2;10.6.3.2 Precipitation Model;393
13.6.3.3;10.6.3.3 Single Admittance Model;394
13.6.3.4;10.6.3.4 Global Hydrological Models;395
13.6.4;10.6.4 Ocean Tide Loading Gravity Effect;398
13.6.4.1;10.6.4.1 Ocean Tide Loading Correction of the Tidal Parameters;399
13.6.5;10.6.5 Polar Motion;401
13.6.6;10.6.6 Instrumental Drift;403
13.7;10.7 Analysis of Surface Gravity Effects;403
13.7.1;10.7.1 Pre-processing;404
13.7.2;10.7.2 Earth Tides;405
13.7.2.1;10.7.2.1 Program ANALYZE;406
13.7.2.2;10.7.2.2 Program BAYTYP-G;407
13.7.2.3;10.7.2.3 Program VAV;409
13.7.2.4;10.7.2.4 Analysis Results;409
13.7.3;10.7.3 Nearly Diurnal-Free Wobble;411
13.7.4;10.7.4 Polar Motion;413
13.7.5;10.7.5 Free Oscillation of the Earth;413
13.7.6;10.7.6 Translational Oscillations of the Inner Core (Slichter Triplet);415
13.7.7;10.7.7 Co-seismic Gravity Change;416
13.7.8;10.7.8 Gravity Residuals;418
13.8;10.8 Combination of Ground (SG) and Space Techniques;419
13.8.1;10.8.1 Combination of SG and GPS Measurements;420
13.8.2;10.8.2 Comparison of SG, GRACE and Hydrological Models-Derived Gravity Variations;420
13.8.2.1;10.8.2.1 Preparing of the Data Sets;421
13.8.2.2;10.8.2.2 Comparing Results;424
13.9;10.9 Future Applications;425
13.10;References;426
14;11 Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry;434
14.1;11.1 Introduction;434
14.2;11.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging;435
14.2.1;11.2.1 Radar Transmitted and Received Signal;437
14.2.2;11.2.2 Impulse Response of SAR;439
14.2.3;11.2.3 Pulse Compression (Focus) and Doppler Frequency;440
14.2.3.1;11.2.3.1 Range Compression;440
14.2.3.2;11.2.3.2 Azimuth Compression;441
14.2.4;11.2.4 Spotlight Mode;442
14.2.5;11.2.5 ScanSAR Mode;445
14.3;11.3 SAR Interferometry;446
14.3.1;11.3.1 Principle of SAR Interferometry;448
14.3.2;11.3.2 Phase Unwrapping;451
14.3.2.1;11.3.2.1 Least-Squares Method;452
14.3.2.2;11.3.2.2 Branch Cuts Method;454
14.3.2.3;11.3.2.3 Minimizing Cost Flow Method;455
14.3.3;11.3.3 Image Registration;457
14.3.4;11.3.4 Coherence of SAR Images;458
14.4;11.4 Differential SAR Interferometry;459
14.4.1;11.4.1 Principle of D-INSAR;459
14.4.2;11.4.2 Persistent Scatterer SAR Interferometry;460
14.4.2.1;11.4.2.1 Selection of Master Image;461
14.4.2.2;11.4.2.2 Generation of Differential Interferograms;461
14.4.2.3;11.4.2.3 Modelling of Differential Interferometric Phase;461
14.4.2.4;11.4.2.4 Preliminary Estimation of Persistent Scatterer Candidates (PSCs);462
14.4.2.5;11.4.2.5 Estimation of Linear Deformation;463
14.4.3;11.4.3 Example: Coseismic Deformation Measurement of Bam Earthquake;464
14.4.3.1;11.4.3.1 Radar Data;464
14.4.3.2;11.4.3.2 Baseline Estimation;464
14.4.3.3;11.4.3.3 Interferogram and Elevation Model;466
14.4.3.4;11.4.3.4 Differential Interferometry and Surface Deformation;466
14.4.3.5;11.4.3.5 Determination of the Location and Shape of the Ruptured Fault;468
14.4.3.6;11.4.3.6 Estimation of the Theoretical Model for the Earthquake Source;470
14.4.4;11.4.4 Example: Subsidence Monitoring in Tianjin Region;471
14.5;11.5 SAR Interferometry with Corner Reflectors (CR-INSAR);472
14.5.1;11.5.1 Orientation of the Corner Reflectors;474
14.5.2;11.5.2 Interpolation Kernel Design and Co-registration;474
14.5.3;11.5.3 Phase Pattern of Flat Terrain;475
14.5.4;11.5.4 Elevation-Phase-Relation Matrix Ch and Phase Unwrapping;477
14.5.5;11.5.5 Differential Interferogram Modelling;478
14.5.6;11.5.6 CR-INSAR Example: Landslide Monitoring in Three Gorges Area;480
14.6;11.6 High-Resolution TerraSAR-X;487
14.7;References;492
15;Index;494