Achterbergh / Vriens Organizations

Social Systems Conducting Experiments
1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-3-642-00110-9
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 380 Seiten

to do to ensure survival, and (2) principles for designing organizational structures in such a way that they can realize the required functions adequately. In the course of their elaboration, we will show that these principles are general - i. e. , that they hold for all organizations. 1. 5 Conceptual Background To describe organizations as social systems conducting experiments and to present principles for designing an infrastructure supporting the 'social experiment,' we use concepts from (organizational) cybernetics, social systems theory, and Aristotle's ethics. In this book, we hope to show that concepts from these traditions - as introduced by their relevant representatives - can be integrated into a framework supporting our perspective on organizations. To this purpose, we introduce, in each of the following chapters, relevant concepts from an author 'belonging' to one of these three traditions and show how these concepts contribute to either describing organizations as social expe- ments (in Part I of the book), to formulating principles for the design of functions and organization structures supporting meaningful survival (Part II), or to formul- ing principles for the design of organization structures enabling the rich sense of meaningful survival (Part III). Of course, the relevance of cybernetics, social systems theory and Aristotle's ethics can only be understood in full, after they have been treated in more detail - but based on what we said above, it may already be possible to see why these theories have been chosen as conceptual background.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Achterbergh, Jan

Vriens, Dirk

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Dedication;5
2;Acknowledgments;5
3;Contents;5
4;Chapter 1: Introducing Organizations as Social Systems Conducting Experiments;11
4.1;Introduction;11
4.2;Making Sense of Organizations: From ``Phenomena´´ to ``Key Features´´;11
4.2.1;Situation 1: Strategy Formulation;12
4.2.2;Situation 2: A Worker in Trouble;14
4.2.3;The First ``Arche´´: The Experimental Character of Organizations;16
4.2.4;The Second ``Arche´´: The Social Systemic Character of Organizations;16
4.2.5;The Relation Between the Social Systemic and the Experimental Character of Organizations;17
4.3;Organizations as Social Systems Conducting Experiments;18
4.3.1;Conducting Experiments;19
4.3.1.1;What is at Stake in the Experiment: Maintaining a Separate and Meaningful Existence;19
4.3.1.2;Conducting the Experiment: Adaptation and Realization for Meaningful Survival;22
4.3.1.3;The Experimental Character of Adaptation and Realization for Survival;25
4.3.2;Organizations as Social Systems;27
4.4;Principles Improving Organizational Design;30
4.4.1;Functional Design Principles;31
4.4.2;Specific Design Principles;32
4.5;Conceptual Background;33
4.6;Outline of the Book;35
4.6.1;Part I: Organizations as Social Systems Conducting Experiments with their Survival;35
4.6.2;Part II: Designing Organizations as Social Systems Conducting Experiments;37
4.6.3;Part III: Poor and Rich Survival;38
4.7;References;39
5;Chapter 2: The Experimental Arche: Ashby´s Cybernetics;40
5.1;Introduction;40
5.2;Cybernetics: Effective Methods for the Study of Complex Systems;41
5.2.1;Describing Behavior: ``Systems´´ and ``Transformations´´;42
5.2.2;Regular Behavior and Input;45
5.2.3;A procedure to Describe Behavior and Identify Regularity;47
5.2.3.1;Step 1. Select a Purpose;48
5.2.3.2;Step 2. Define the System, the Parameters, and the Measurement Interval;49
5.2.3.3;Step 3. Record the Behavior of the Black Box in Terms of Input and Output;49
5.2.3.4;Step 4: Construct a Conditional Transformation;50
5.2.3.5;Step 5. Establish Regularities in the Behavior of the Black Box (and Iterate);50
5.3;Cybernetics: Effective Methods for the Control of Complex Systems;53
5.3.1;Ashby´s Views on Regulation: Definition, Types of Regulation and Requisite Variety;53
5.3.1.1;Regulation: Ashby´s Definition;53
5.3.1.2;Types of Regulation;56
5.3.1.3;Effective Regulation: The Law of Requisite Variety;60
5.3.2;Control, Design and Operational Regulation;61
5.3.2.1;Control;62
5.3.2.2;Design;63
5.3.2.3;A Method to Deal with Complex Systems;65
5.3.2.3.1;Step 1: Control;65
5.3.2.3.2;Step 2: Design;66
5.3.2.3.3;Step 3: Regulation;66
5.3.2.4;An Illustration of Ashby´s Method: Problem-Solving as a Series of ``Control,´´ ``Design´´ and “65
5.3.2.5;Ashby´s Method Underlies Regulation in and of Organizations;69
5.3.3;Adaptive Behavior;72
5.3.3.1;Adaptation and Self-Regulation;72
5.3.3.2;Organizations as Adaptive Self-Regulatory Systems;73
5.4;Organizations as Systems Conducting Experiments;76
5.5;References;79
6;Chapter 3: The Experimental Arche Continued: Von Foerster on Observing Systems;80
6.1;Introduction;80
6.2;Two problems in first-order cybernetics;83
6.2.1;The problem of selection;83
6.2.2;The problem of defining the transformation;84
6.2.3;Dealing with Both Problems: The Cybernetics of Observing;90
6.3;Observers as Closed Systems Producing Eigenvalues;90
6.3.1;Closed Systems and Their Eigenvalues;91
6.3.1.1;A Formalism to Explain the Emergence of Eigenvalues;91
6.3.1.2;Three necessary elaborations of the basic formalism;94
6.3.1.2.1;The diversity of eigenvalues;94
6.3.1.2.2;The role of input;95
6.3.1.2.3;Eigenvalues and the complexity of systems producing them;97
6.3.2;Closure, cognition and observing;98
6.3.2.1;Closure of the nervous-system;99
6.3.2.2;The emergence of cognitive content;105
6.3.3;Problems of First-order Cybernetics Revisited;108
6.3.3.1;The Hypothetical Nature of Knowledge;110
6.4;Von Foerster and the Risky Nature of the Organizational Experiment;111
6.4.1;A Common Sense Understanding of Risk;112
6.4.2;A More Fundamental Understanding of Risk;113
6.4.3;Two Consequences of von Foerster´s View on Risk;115
6.4.3.1;Reification and Reduction;115
6.4.3.2;Responsibility;117
6.5;References;119
7;Chapter 4: The Second ``arche,´´ Organizations as Social Systems: Luhmann;121
7.1;Introduction;121
7.2;Luhmann´s General Theory of Social Systems;122
7.2.1;Autopoietic or Self-Producing Systems;123
7.2.1.1;Elements and the Production of Autopoietic Systems;124
7.2.1.2;Structures Regulating Autopoietic Production;127
7.2.1.3;Emergent Characteristics of Autopoietic Systems;130
7.2.2;Meaning Processing Systems;132
7.2.2.1;Two Key Properties of the Elements of Meaning Processing Systems;132
7.2.2.1.1;The Inner Structure of the Elements of Meaning Processing Systems: Meaning;132
7.2.2.1.2;The ``event-like´´ Character of the Elements of Meaning Processing Systems;134
7.2.2.2;The Structure and Self-Production of Meaning Processing Systems;134
7.2.3;Social Systems;137
7.2.3.1;Elements of Social Systems: Communications, their Inner Structure;137
7.2.3.2;The Structure of Social System: Expectations about Expectations;139
7.2.3.3;The Autopoietic Production of Social Systems;142
7.3;The Social ``arche´´: Organizations as a Particular type of Social Systems;145
7.3.1;Elements of Organizations: Decisions;147
7.3.2;The Organization´s Structure: Decision Premises;150
7.3.2.1;The Main Function of Decision Premises;151
7.3.2.2;Types of Decision Premises;153
7.3.2.2.1;Membership;153
7.3.2.2.2;Communication Pathways;155
7.3.2.2.3;Decision Programs;156
7.3.2.2.4;Personnel;157
7.3.2.2.5;Position;157
7.3.2.2.6;Planning;157
7.3.2.2.7;Self-descriptions;158
7.3.2.2.8;Organizational culture;158
7.3.2.2.9;Cognitive routines;159
7.3.2.3;Some Remarks on the Function and Types of Decision Premises;160
7.3.3;Processes of Self-Production: The Autopoiesis of Organizations;162
7.3.4;Questions Concerning Luhmann´s Theory of Organizations;163
7.3.4.1;Question 1;164
7.3.4.2;Question 2;165
7.3.4.3;Question 3;166
7.4;Organizations as social systems reflecting complexity;168
7.5;References;170
8;Chapter 5: Epilogue to Part I: The Two ``Archai´´ Combined;172
8.1;Introduction;172
8.2;Cybernetics and Social Systems Theory; an Exploratory Comparison;173
8.2.1;The Goal and Core Concepts of Respectively Cybernetics and Social Systems Theory;173
8.2.1.1;General Theory of Social Systems (Luhmann 1984);175
8.2.1.2;Specific Theory of Organizations;175
8.2.2;Cybernetics and Social Systems Theory Compared;175
8.3;Combining the Experimental and the Social ``Arche´´;177
8.4;Transition to Part II: Designing organizations;182
8.5;References;182
9;Chapter 6: Beer: Functional Design Principles for Viable Infrastructures;183
9.1;Introduction;183
9.2;Viability and Complexity;185
9.2.1;Complexity Relations Between Environment, Organization, and Its Management;185
9.2.2;Three Strategies to Solve the Complexity Problem;186
9.2.2.1;Strategy 1: Define Goals;186
9.2.2.2;Strategy 2: Attenuate Disturbances and Amplify Regulatory Potential;187
9.2.2.3;Strategy 3: Recursion;189
9.2.2.3.1;Criterion 1;193
9.3;A functional Model of Viability;195
9.3.1;What Does it Mean to Make a Functional Model of a Viable System?;195
9.3.2;Beer´s Functional Model of Viable Organizations;198
9.3.2.1;Function One: Primary Activities;198
9.3.2.2;Function Two: Coordination;199
9.3.2.3;Function Three: Control;201
9.3.2.4;Function Four: Intelligence;202
9.3.2.5;Function Five: Policy;204
9.3.3;Relations Between Functions;207
9.3.3.1;Relations Between Functions Required to Realize the Organization´s Mission and Goals;207
9.3.3.1.1;Direct Commands and Reports and Resource Bargaining Between Control and the Primary Activities;208
9.3.3.1.2;Audits of the Primary Activities;208
9.3.3.1.3;Controlling the Coordination Function (Control - Coordination);209
9.3.3.1.4;Coordinating Interdependencies Between Primary Activities (Coordination - Primary Activities);209
9.3.3.2;Relations Between Functions Required to Adapt the Organization´s Identity and Mission;210
9.3.3.2.1;Consolidating Plans for Innovation (Policy - Intelligence - Control);210
9.3.3.2.2;Generating Finalized Proposals for Innovation (Intelligence - Control);212
9.3.3.2.3;Facilitating Communication Between Control And Intelligence (Policy - Intelligence - Control);213
9.3.4;Diagnosing and Designing Viable Infrastructures;215
9.4;The Viable System Model and Social Systems Conducting Experiments;217
9.4.1;Example 1;224
9.4.2;Example 2;225
9.5;References;227
10;Chapter 7: Specific Design Principles: de Sitter´s Organizational Structures;228
10.1;Introduction;228
10.2;Designing Organizational Structures: Aiming at Attenuation and Amplification;231
10.2.1;Organizational Structures;232
10.2.1.1;Tasks in Organizations I: Defining Tasks;232
10.2.1.2;Tasks in Organizations II: Operational and Regulatory Transformations;235
10.2.1.2.1;The Operational and Regulatory Aspect of Transformations;235
10.2.1.2.2;Four types of Regulatory Transformations;237
10.2.1.3;Relating Tasks into Organizational Structures;240
10.2.2;Relevant Organizational Variables;242
10.2.3;Disturbances;243
10.2.4;Attenuation and Amplification by Organizational Structures;245
10.3;Principles for Designing Organizational Structures;247
10.3.1;Design Parameters;247
10.3.2;Using Design parameters to Formulate Design Principles;254
10.3.2.1;The Effect of an Organizational Structure with Maximum Parameter Values on Controllability;248
10.3.2.1.1;The Effect of High Parameter Values of the Production Structure;256
10.3.2.1.2;The Effect of High Parameter Values of the Control Structure;258
10.3.2.1.3;The Effect of High Working Pressure and Reduced Regulatory Potential on Realizing Tasks and on Organizational Quality;262
10.3.2.1.3.1;Quality of Organization;262
10.3.2.1.3.2;Quality of Work;263
10.3.2.1.3.3;Quality of working Relations;265
10.3.2.2;The Effect of an Organizational Structure with Minimum Parameter Values on Controllability;265
10.3.2.2.1;The Effect of Low Parameter Values of the Production Structure;268
10.3.2.2.2;The Effect of Low Parameter Values of the Control Structure;273
10.3.2.2.3;The Effect of Low Working Pressure and Increased Regulatory Potential on Realizing Tasks and on Organizational Quality;275
10.3.2.2.3.1;Quality of Organization;276
10.3.2.2.3.2;Quality of Work;276
10.3.2.2.3.3;Quality of Working Relations;276
10.3.2.2.4;Limits to Lowering Parameter-values;276
10.4;De Sitter´s Organizational Structures and Conducting Experiments;277
10.4.1;Relating de Sitter to Ashby, Luhmann and Beer;278
10.4.2;How Do Low Parameter Structures Benefit Organizational Experimentation?;280
10.5;References;281
11;Chapter 8: Epilogue to Part II: functional and specific design principles;282
11.1;Introduction;282
11.2;Summary of the Design Principles;282
11.2.1;Functional Design Principles;283
11.2.2;Specific Design Principles;283
11.3;The Status of the Design Principles;284
11.3.1;Principles of Experiments with Meaningful Survival;285
11.3.2;Design Principles Figuring in Experiments with Meaningful Survival;286
11.4;Transition to Part III: Poor and Rich Survival;288
12;Chapter 9: Poor Survival: Disciplining Organizational Behavior;290
12.1;Introduction;290
12.2;Foucault: The Disciplines in the Eighteenth Century;292
12.2.1;The Analysis of Space;293
12.2.2;The Analysis of Bodily Operations;293
12.2.3;The Analysis of the Process of Production;294
12.2.4;The Synthesis of Space, Bodily Operations and the Process of Productions;294
12.2.5;Hierarchical Surveillance;294
12.2.6;Normalizing Sanctions;296
12.2.7;Examination;297
12.3;A Cybernetic and Social Systemic Generalization of the Disciplines;298
12.3.1;Cybernetic Analysis of the Disciplines;299
12.3.2;Social Systemic Analysis of the Disciplines;304
12.3.3;Cybernetic and Social Systemic Principles Underpinning Discipline in Organizations;307
12.4;Why are the Disciplines Disquieting?;308
12.4.1;Trivialization;309
12.4.2;Self-Trivialization;310
12.4.3;Fear as a Prime Motivational Factor;310
12.4.4;A Science of Discipline;311
12.4.5;Detachment and Lack of Involvement;311
12.4.6;Contingent and Minimal Goals;312
12.5;References;314
13;Chapter 10: Towards Rich Survival: Aristotle;315
13.1;Introduction;315
13.2;The Highest Good for Man: Basic Distinctions;318
13.2.1;The Highest Good for Man: Living a Fulfilled Life;318
13.2.2;Characteristically Human Capacities and the Fulfilled Life;320
13.2.3;Virtues Involved in Eudaimonia;322
13.3;Eupraxia: Moral Virtue, Practical Wisdom, and Choice;325
13.3.1;Moral Virtue;326
13.3.2;Practical Wisdom;329
13.3.2.1;Making and Acting;329
13.3.2.2;Skill and Practical Wisdom;330
13.3.2.2.1;Skill: Knowledge and Experience;331
13.3.2.2.2;Skill: Deliberation and Judgment;332
13.3.2.2.3;Practical Wisdom;333
13.3.2.2.4;Practical Wisdom: Knowledge and Experience;333
13.3.2.2.5;Practical Wisdom: Deliberation and Judgment;335
13.3.2.2.6;Comparing Skill and Practical Wisdom;337
13.3.2.3;Choice: Combining Moral Virtue and Practical Wisdom;339
13.3.2.4;Developing Moral Virtue and Practical Wisdom;341
13.4;Aristotle Versus the Disciplines;345
13.5;References;347
14;Chapter 11: Organizational Structures Supporting Rich Survival;348
14.1;Introduction;348
14.2;Incorporating the Organization into Society;348
14.3;Rich Survival: Specific Design Principles and Corresponding Structures;354
14.3.1;Requirements to and Design Principles for ``Rich´´ Organizational Structures;354
14.3.1.1;Responsible Organizations: Requirements;354
14.3.1.2;Responsible Organizations: Design Principles;359
14.3.1.2.1;Design Principle 1;359
14.3.1.2.2;Design Principle 2;360
14.3.1.2.3;Design Principle 3;360
14.3.1.3;Responsible Organizational Members: Inclusive Jobs;361
14.3.1.3.1;Design Principle 4;365
14.3.1.3.2;Design Principle 5;365
14.3.1.3.3;Design Principle 6;365
14.3.1.4;Inclusive Versus Discipline-Like Jobs;365
14.3.2;Production and Control Structures Fitting the Design Principles;367
14.3.2.1;``Rich´´ Production Structures;368
14.3.2.2;Group 2: Rich Control Structures;370
14.4;Organizations and Rich Meaningful Survival;372
14.5;References;375
15;Chapter 12: Epilogue;376
15.1;Introduction;376
15.2;Organizations, ``Archai,´´ Design Principles, and ``Rich´´ Survival;376
15.3;Rich Survival: Its Applicability to Organizations and Relation to Poor Survival;378
15.4;Things to do;381
15.5;References;382