Blum / Aho Computer Science

The Hardware, Software and Heart of It
1. Auflage 2011
ISBN: 978-1-4614-1168-0
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 470 Seiten

Computer Science: The Hardware, Software and Heart of It focuses on the deeper aspects of the two recognized subdivisions of Computer Science, Software and Hardware. These subdivisions are shown to be closely interrelated as a result of the stored-program concept. Computer Science: The Hardware, Software and Heart of It includes certain classical theoretical computer science topics such as Unsolvability (e.g. the halting problem) and Undecidability (e.g. Godel's incompleteness theorem) that treat problems that exist under the Church-Turing thesis of computation. These problem topics explain inherent limits lying at the heart of software, and in effect define boundaries beyond which computer science professionals cannot go beyond. Newer topics such as Cloud Computing are also covered in this book. After a survey of traditional programming languages (e.g. Fortran and C++), a new kind of computer Programming for parallel/distributed computing is presented using the message-passing paradigm which is at the heart of large clusters of computers. This leads to descriptions of current hardware platforms for large-scale computing, such as clusters of as many as one thousand which are the new generation of supercomputers. This also leads to a consideration of future quantum computers and a possible escape from the Church-Turing thesis to a new computation paradigm. The book's historical context is especially helpful during this, the centenary of Turing's birth. Alan Turing is widely regarded as the father of Computer Science, since many concepts in both the hardware and software of Computer Science can be traced to his pioneering research. Turing was  a multi-faceted mathematician-engineer and was able to work on both concrete and abstract levels. This book shows how these two seemingly disparate aspects of Computer Science are intimately related. Further, the book treats the  theoretical side of Computer Science as well, which also derives from Turing's research. Computer Science: The Hardware, Software and Heart of It is designed as a professional book for practitioners and researchers working in the related fields of Quantum Computing, Cloud Computing, Computer Networking, as well as non-scientist readers. Advanced-level and undergraduate students concentrating on computer science, engineering and mathematics will also find this book useful.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Blum, Edward K.

Aho, Alfred V

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Computer Science;3
1.1;Contents;5
1.2;Contributors;9
1.3;Part I: ;11
1.3.1;Chapter 1: Introduction and Prologue;12
1.3.1.1;Hardware Synopsis;15
1.3.1.2;Software Synopsis;17
1.3.1.3;Some General Remarks on the Nature of Computation;18
1.3.1.4;Reference;19
1.3.2;Chapter 2: Computation: Brief History Prior to the 1900s;20
1.3.3;Chapter 3: The Heart of Computer Science;26
1.3.3.1;The Decision Problem of Formalist Mathematics;27
1.3.3.2;The Turing Machine;30
1.3.3.2.1;The Turing Machine;31
1.3.3.2.2;The Universal Turing Machine. A Stored-Program Computer;34
1.3.3.2.3;A Program for a Universal Turing Machine;34
1.3.3.2.4;Other Models of Turing Machines;36
1.3.3.3;Unsolvable Computational Problems; The Church-Turing Thesis37
1.3.3.4;Appendix 1;40
1.3.3.4.1;Symbolic Logic, Computer Science and the Godel Incompleteness Theorem;40
1.3.3.4.2;Propositional Logic and Boolean Algebra;41
1.3.3.4.3;Boolean Algebra and Circuits;44
1.3.3.4.4;Propositonal Logic and First-Order Predicate Logic;45
1.3.3.4.5;Additional Axioms of First-Order Predicate Logic;47
1.3.3.4.6;Peano´s Axioms;49
1.3.3.4.7;Beyond Computation. Formal Syntax and Informal Interpretation;52
1.3.3.5;Appendix 2 ;54
1.3.3.5.1;The Lambda Calculus;54
1.3.3.5.2;Syntax and Rules of Derivation of the Lambda Calculus;56
1.3.3.5.3;Turing´s Proof of the Unsolvability of the Decision Problem;60
1.3.4;Chapter4: The Software Side of Computer Science - Computer Programming;62
1.3.4.1;Appendix: The BNF Notation, Syntax of Programming Languages;67
1.3.4.2;Other Programming Languages;70
1.3.4.3;Parallel Computing Languages;71
1.3.4.3.1;Subroutines;72
1.3.4.4;A Footnote;73
1.3.4.5;Appendix: Java Applets, HTML and the Web;74
1.3.4.6;HTML;74
1.3.4.7;Applets;76
1.3.4.8;References;77
1.4;Part II: ;78
1.4.1;Chapter 5: The Hardware Side;79
1.4.1.1;Appendix 1;87
1.4.1.1.1;Logic Circuits;87
1.4.1.1.2;Field Effect Transistor (FET);89
1.4.1.1.3;The Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET);90
1.4.1.1.4;Functional Model of an NPN Transistor;91
1.4.1.1.4.1;Darlington Pair Circuit;93
1.4.1.1.5;Using a Transistor as a Switch;94
1.4.1.1.5.1;Choosing a Suitable PNP Transistor;95
1.4.1.1.6;A Transistor Inverter (NOT Gate) Circuit;97
1.4.1.1.7;RS (Reset-Set) Flip-Flop;102
1.4.1.2;Appendix 2;103
1.4.1.2.1;Hardware for the User Interface;103
1.4.1.2.2;The Monitor as a Visual Output Display;103
1.4.2;Chapter6: Operating Systems (OS);105
1.4.2.1;The OS Kernel and the Shell;107
1.4.2.2;File Systems;108
1.4.2.3;File Permission;110
1.4.2.4;Scheduling;111
1.4.2.5;Concluding Observations About OS´s;112
1.4.2.6;References;112
1.4.3;Chapter7: Computer Networks;113
1.4.3.1;The Internet;115
1.4.3.1.1;The Internet;115
1.4.3.2;Graphs of Networks;116
1.4.3.2.1;Graph Theory;117
1.4.3.3;The World Wide Web (The Web);117
1.4.3.4;Protocols: The Technology of Network Transmission of Messages;118
1.4.3.5;Implementation of Computer Networks - The Ethernet;119
1.4.3.6;The ISO Open Systems Interconnection Model (OSI);120
1.4.3.7;How the OSI Layers Work;121
1.4.3.8;Sockets;124
1.4.3.9;The Larger Contexts of Messages;124
1.4.3.10;Telephone and Data Transmission;125
1.4.3.11;Appendix 1;126
1.4.3.11.1;Sockets;126
1.4.3.11.2;Socket Send/Receive Functions;127
1.4.3.11.3;Blocking and Non-blocking Sockets;128
1.4.3.11.4;Creating a Client-Server Socket Pair under MPI Implementations;129
1.4.3.11.5;MPI Collective Communication;131
1.4.3.12;Appendix 2;132
1.4.3.12.1;Graph theory;132
1.4.3.12.2;Some Basics of Graph Theory;134
1.4.3.12.3;Random Graph Theory for General Degree Distributions;135
1.4.3.12.4;Random Subgraphs in a Given Host Graphs;137
1.4.3.12.5;PageRank and Local Partitioning;138
1.4.3.12.6;Network Games;141
1.4.3.13;Summary;142
1.4.3.14;References;142
1.4.3.14.1;References for Computer Networks: Sockets and MPI;145
1.4.3.14.2;Video-streaming;145
1.4.4;Chapter8: High Performance Computing and Communication (HPCC);146
1.4.4.1;Introduction;146
1.4.4.2;The USC HPCC Center;148
1.4.4.3;The Clusters;148
1.4.4.4;Cluster Network Switch Fabrics;149
1.4.4.5;HPCC Disk Storage;151
1.4.4.6;Heat and Air Conditioning;152
1.4.4.7;Financing Clusters;153
1.4.4.7.1;OS and Applications Interface Software;153
1.4.4.7.2;HTC and HPC;154
1.4.4.7.3;Clouds;155
1.4.4.8;Some Conclusions;157
1.4.4.9;Appendix;158
1.4.4.9.1;Cloud Computing;158
1.4.5;Chapter9: Programming for Distributed Computing: From Physical to Logical Networks;161
1.4.5.1;Distributed and Parallel Programming;162
1.4.5.1.1;Levels of Parallelism;162
1.4.5.1.2;Tasks in Parallel Programming;163
1.4.5.2;Physical Computers and Networks;164
1.4.5.2.1;Concepts of Parallel Programming;164
1.4.5.2.2;Examples of API´s for Parallel Programs;165
1.4.5.2.3;Concurrent Programming Languages;167
1.4.5.2.4;A Brief Introduction to Erlang;168
1.4.5.3;Logical Networks;169
1.4.5.3.1;Service-Oriented Architectures: A Survey;170
1.4.5.3.2;Cloud Computing-A Survey and Critique;171
1.4.5.3.3;p2p Networks-a Survey and Critique;172
1.4.5.4;Conclusions;173
1.4.5.5;Reference;174
1.4.6;Chapter10: Databases;175
1.4.6.1;Introduction: Two Views of Database Research;175
1.4.6.2;The Relational Model;178
1.4.6.2.1;The Path to Relational Databases;178
1.4.6.2.2;A Tour of the Relational Paradigm;182
1.4.6.2.2.1;Abstraction;182
1.4.6.2.2.2;Declarative, Computationally Limited, Languages;183
1.4.6.2.2.3;Indexed Data Architecture;186
1.4.6.2.2.4;Algebraic Query Plans;187
1.4.6.2.2.5;Cost Estimation and Search;188
1.4.6.2.2.6;ACID Transactions;189
1.4.6.2.3;The Evaluation Pipeline of the Relational Paradigm;191
1.4.6.3;Core Database Research Sampler;193
1.4.6.3.1;Query Languages;193
1.4.6.3.1.1;Aggregation;193
1.4.6.3.1.2;Recursion;194
1.4.6.3.1.3;Stored Procedures;195
1.4.6.3.2;Logical Optimizations;196
1.4.6.3.2.1;Local Optimizations;197
1.4.6.3.2.1.1;Equivalence Rules;197
1.4.6.3.2.1.2;Unnesting Complex Queries;197
1.4.6.3.2.2;Global Optimizations: Static Analysis;198
1.4.6.3.2.2.1;Query Evaluation and Query Containment;199
1.4.6.3.2.2.2;Acyclic Queries;200
1.4.6.3.2.2.3;Query Minimization;201
1.4.6.3.2.2.4;Use of Static Analysis in DBMSs;202
1.4.6.3.3;Between Logical and Physical Optimizations: Views;202
1.4.6.3.3.1;Updates in Relational Databases;203
1.4.6.3.3.2;View Maintenance;204
1.4.6.3.3.3;View Update;205
1.4.6.3.4;Plan Generation;205
1.4.6.3.4.1;Cost Estimation and Histograms;206
1.4.6.3.4.2;The Cascades Optimizer;208
1.4.6.3.5;Data Indexing and Storage;208
1.4.6.3.5.1;Multidimensional Indexes;209
1.4.6.3.5.2;Column Stores;210
1.4.6.3.5.3;Stream Databases;210
1.4.6.3.6;Hardware and Why it Matters;211
1.4.6.3.6.1;SSDs vs Magnetic Hard Drives;212
1.4.6.3.7;Distributed Databases;213
1.4.6.4;Extending Database Functionality;215
1.4.6.4.1;Data Design;215
1.4.6.4.2;Advanced Data Definition;218
1.4.6.4.2.1;From Stored Data to Virtual Data;218
1.4.6.4.2.2;More Complex Virtual Databases;219
1.4.6.4.2.3;Integration vs. Extraction in Commercial Systems;220
1.4.6.4.2.4;More General Implicitly Specified Databases;220
1.4.6.4.2.5;Ontologies and Databases;221
1.4.6.4.3;New Models: Complex Objects;222
1.4.6.4.3.1;Nested Structures;223
1.4.6.4.3.2;Adding Support for Duplication;224
1.4.6.4.3.3;More Powerful Languages;225
1.4.6.4.3.4;Data Design for Nested Structures;225
1.4.6.4.3.5;Industrial Support and DBR for Complex Objects;226
1.4.6.4.4;XML and Tree-Structured Data;227
1.4.6.5;Conclusions;229
1.4.6.6;References;231
1.4.7;Chapter 11: Computer Security and Public Key Cryptography;236
1.4.7.1;Secure (Secret) Email;236
1.4.7.2;RSA Cryptosystems;238
1.4.7.2.1;RSA procedures for Encryption and Decryption;240
1.4.7.2.2;Finding Large Prime Numbers p and q;240
1.4.7.2.3;Signatures;241
1.4.7.3;The Diffie-Hellman Protocol;242
1.4.7.3.1;The El Gamal Public Key Cryptosystem System;242
1.4.7.4;Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC);243
1.4.7.5;References;245
1.4.8;Chapter12: Complexity Theory;246
1.4.8.1;Introduction;246
1.4.8.2;Languages and Decision Problems;247
1.4.8.3;Models of Computation;247
1.4.8.4;Measures of Time Complexity;251
1.4.8.4.1;Time Complexity of Turing Machines;251
1.4.8.4.2;Simulating a Multitape Turing Machine with a Single-tape Turing Machine;252
1.4.8.4.3;Time Complexity of Nondeterministic Turing Machines;252
1.4.8.5;The Complexity Classes P and NP;253
1.4.8.5.1;The Complexity Class P;253
1.4.8.5.2;Examples of Problems in P;254
1.4.8.5.3;The Complexity Class NP;254
1.4.8.5.4;Examples of Problems in NP;255
1.4.8.5.5;NP-Completeness;256
1.4.8.5.6;Reducibility;257
1.4.8.6;The P Versus NP Question;258
1.4.8.7;Space Complexity;259
1.4.8.7.1;Space Complexity of Turing Machines;259
1.4.8.7.2;Sublinear Space Complexity Classes;259
1.4.8.7.3;The Class PSPACE;260
1.4.8.7.4;The Class EXPSPACE;261
1.4.8.8;NP-Optimization Problems;261
1.4.8.8.1;Brute-Force Algorithms;262
1.4.8.8.2;Heuristic Algorithms;262
1.4.8.8.3;Approximation Algorithms;262
1.4.8.9;Probabilistic Algorithms;263
1.4.8.9.1;Amplification;264
1.4.8.9.2;Does Randomness Help?;264
1.4.8.10;Interactive Proof Systems;264
1.4.8.10.1;The Class IP;265
1.4.8.11;Probabilistically Checkable Proofs;266
1.4.8.11.1;Locally Testable Proofs;267
1.4.8.11.2;PCP Verifiers;267
1.4.8.11.3;Constraint Satisfaction Problems;268
1.4.8.12;Relationships Among Complexity Classes;268
1.4.8.12.1;Time-Hierarchy Theorem;269
1.4.8.12.2;Space-Hierarchy Theorem;269
1.4.8.12.3;The Complexity Zoo;270
1.4.8.13;References;271
1.4.9;Chapter13: Multivariate Complexity Theory;273
1.4.9.1;Introduction;273
1.4.9.1.1;A Concrete Illustration;274
1.4.9.2;Parameterized Complexity: A Two-Dimensional Theory;276
1.4.9.2.1;Definition: Parameterized Language;278
1.4.9.2.2;Definition: FPT;278
1.4.9.2.3;Definition: XP;278
1.4.9.3;How to Parameterize?;279
1.4.9.3.1;The Multivariate Complexity Workflow;282
1.4.9.3.2;An Example of Principle 1: Enriching the Model;282
1.4.9.3.3;An Example of Principle 2: Deconstructing Hardness;283
1.4.9.4;A Parameterized Analog of the Cook/Levin Theorem;284
1.4.9.4.1;Definition: Parametric Transformation;284
1.4.9.5;Negative Toolkit - Induced Biclique Is Hard for W[1];287
1.4.9.6;Positive Toolkit: FPT Techniques;288
1.4.9.6.1;Bounded Search Trees;288
1.4.9.6.2;Kernelization: Reduction to a Problem Kernel;289
1.4.9.7;Further Reading;291
1.4.9.8;Conclusions;294
1.4.9.9;References;294
1.4.10;Chapter14: Quantum Computing;298
1.4.10.1;Introduction to Quantum Computing;298
1.4.10.1.1;History of QM: Puzzles in the Classical World;299
1.4.10.1.2;Properties of Quantum Mechanics;299
1.4.10.1.2.1;Indeterminism;300
1.4.10.1.2.2;Interference;301
1.4.10.1.2.3;Uncertainty;301
1.4.10.1.2.4;Complementarity;301
1.4.10.1.2.5;Discrete Spectrum;302
1.4.10.1.2.6;Superposition;302
1.4.10.1.2.7;Entanglement;302
1.4.10.1.3;Quantum Information and Computation-A Prehistory;303
1.4.10.2;The Mathematical Structure of Quantum Theory;304
1.4.10.2.1;The Stern-Gerlach Experiment and Spin;304
1.4.10.2.1.1;Sequential Measurements;305
1.4.10.2.1.2;Complementarity and Randomness;306
1.4.10.2.1.3;The Mathematical Description of Spin;306
1.4.10.2.1.4;The Effect of Measurement;307
1.4.10.2.1.5;Global Phase;308
1.4.10.2.1.6;Evolution of the State;308
1.4.10.2.1.7;Systems of More than One Spin;310
1.4.10.2.1.8;Other Two-Level Systems;312
1.4.10.3;Quantum Information Processing;313
1.4.10.3.1;General Unitary Transformations;314
1.4.10.3.1.1;One-Bit Unitaries and Bloch Sphere Rotation;314
1.4.10.3.1.2;Building up Unitaries;314
1.4.10.3.1.3;Two-Qubit unitaries;315
1.4.10.3.2;Quantum Gates and Circuits;315
1.4.10.4;Quantum Algorithms;316
1.4.10.4.1;The Circuit Model;316
1.4.10.4.1.1;Boolean Circuits;316
1.4.10.4.1.2;Complexity Theory and Circuits;317
1.4.10.4.2;Quantum Circuits;318
1.4.10.4.2.1;Calculating Functions;320
1.4.10.4.2.2;Scratch Bits and Ancillas;321
1.4.10.4.3;Oracles;321
1.4.10.4.4;Quantum Parallelism;322
1.4.10.4.4.1;Deutsch´s Problem;324
1.4.10.4.5;Quantum Fourier Transform;325
1.4.10.4.5.1;Circuits for the Fourier Transform;326
1.4.10.4.5.2;Periodic States;327
1.4.10.4.5.3;Period Finding;328
1.4.10.4.5.4;Greatest Common Divisor;329
1.4.10.4.6;Order-Finding;329
1.4.10.4.6.1;Building a Quantum Algorithm;330
1.4.10.4.6.2;Order-Finding and Factoring;332
1.4.10.4.7;Searching an Unordered Database;333
1.4.10.4.7.1;The Grover Algorithm;333
1.4.10.4.7.2;Number of Iterations;334
1.4.10.4.7.3;Building the Circuit;336
1.4.10.4.7.4;Applications;336
1.4.10.5;Decoherence and Error Correction;337
1.4.10.5.1;Decoherence;337
1.4.10.5.2;Quantum Error Correction;338
1.4.10.5.3;Fault-Tolerance and Threshold Theorems;340
1.4.10.6;Physical Implementations of Quantum Computers;341
1.4.10.6.1;Physical Requirements for Quantum Computation;341
1.4.10.6.2;Ion Traps;342
1.4.10.6.2.1;Qubits;342
1.4.10.6.2.2;Quantum Gates;343
1.4.10.6.2.3;Measurement;344
1.4.10.6.2.4;Decoherence;344
1.4.10.6.2.5;Recent Developments;345
1.4.10.6.2.6;Performance;345
1.4.10.6.3;Superconducting Qubits;346
1.4.10.6.3.1;LC Circuits;346
1.4.10.6.3.2;Josephson Junctions and Superconducting Qubits;346
1.4.10.6.3.3;Quantum Gates;347
1.4.10.6.3.4;Measurement;348
1.4.10.6.3.5;Decoherence;348
1.4.10.6.3.6;State of the Art;348
1.4.10.6.4;Other Systems;349
1.4.10.7;Further Topics;349
1.4.10.8;Reference;350
1.4.11;Chapter 15: Numerical Thinking in Algorithm Design and Analysis;351
1.4.11.1;Numerical Thinking;351
1.4.11.1.1;Smoothed Analysis of Algorithms;352
1.4.11.1.2;The Laplacian Paradigm;352
1.4.11.1.3;Acknowledgements;353
1.4.11.2;Algorithm Design and Analysis with Perturbations;353
1.4.11.2.1;Smoothed Analysis;355
1.4.11.2.1.1;How to Model Real Data and How to Measure Practical Performance?;356
1.4.11.2.1.2;Smoothed Complexity;358
1.4.11.2.1.3;Smoothed Analysis of the Simplex Algorithm;360
1.4.11.2.1.3.1;A Key Perturbation Lemma;360
1.4.11.2.1.3.2;Smoothed Complexity of the Shadow-Vertex Method;360
1.4.11.2.1.4;Other Examples of Smoothed Analysis;361
1.4.11.2.2;Perturbation-Based Algorithm Design;362
1.4.11.2.2.1;Well-Shaped Mesh Generation;363
1.4.11.2.2.2;Problem Statement;363
1.4.11.2.2.2.1;A Key Perturbation Lemma of Weighted Points;363
1.4.11.2.2.2.2;Perturbation-Based Algorithms and Extensions;364
1.4.11.2.2.3;Polynomial-Time Simplex Algorithm;365
1.4.11.2.2.3.1;Problem Statement;365
1.4.11.2.2.3.2;A Key Perturbation Lemma of Polytopes;365
1.4.11.2.2.3.3;Perturbation-Based Simplex Algorithm;366
1.4.11.2.2.4;Robust Gaussian Elimination;367
1.4.11.2.2.4.1;Problem Statement;367
1.4.11.2.2.4.2;A Perturbation Lemma;367
1.4.11.2.2.4.3;A Robust Algorithm for Linear System;368
1.4.11.2.2.5;Other Algorithmic Applications of Smoothed Analysis;369
1.4.11.2.3;Smoothed Complexity Versus Approximation Complexity;369
1.4.11.3;The Laplacian Paradigm: Emerging Algorithms for Massive Graphs;370
1.4.11.3.1;Nearly-Linear Time Laplacian Primitive;371
1.4.11.3.1.1;The Laplacian Primitive and its Solver;371
1.4.11.3.1.2;A Suite of Nearly-Linear-Time Spectral Algorithms;372
1.4.11.3.1.2.1;Clustering and Partitioning;372
1.4.11.3.1.2.2;Spectral Graph Sparsification;373
1.4.11.3.1.2.3;Low Stretch Spanning Trees;374
1.4.11.3.2;The Laplacian Paradigm for Massive Graphs;375
1.4.11.3.2.1;Massive Data and Efficient Algorithm Design;375
1.4.11.3.2.2;The Laplacian Paradigm;376
1.4.11.3.2.2.1;Example I: Spectral Approximation;376
1.4.11.3.2.2.2;Example II: Learning from Labeled Data on a Directed Graph;377
1.4.11.3.2.2.3;Example III: Faster Maximum Flow Approximation;378
1.4.11.3.2.2.4;Other Applications of the Laplacian Paradigm;379
1.4.11.3.2.2.5;Next Generation Algorithms for Massive Graphs;380
1.4.11.4;Not Just Numerical Analysis;381
1.4.11.5;References;382
1.4.12;Chapter 16: Fuzzy Logic in Computer Science;387
1.4.12.1;What Is Fuzzy Logic?;387
1.4.12.1.1;Motivation;387
1.4.12.1.2;Graded Approach;388
1.4.12.1.3;Controversies;389
1.4.12.1.4;Fuzzy Logic and Probability;390
1.4.12.1.5;Various Meanings of ``Fuzzy Logic´´;392
1.4.12.2;Basic Concepts of Fuzzy Logic;392
1.4.12.2.1;Truth Degrees and Truth Functions of Logical Connectives;392
1.4.12.2.2;Fuzzy Sets and Fuzzy Relations;394
1.4.12.3;Fuzzy Logic as Logic;396
1.4.12.3.1;Fuzzy Logic as Many-Valued Logic;396
1.4.12.3.2;Ordinary-Style Calculi;397
1.4.12.3.3;Graded-Style (Pavelka-Style) Calculi;398
1.4.12.3.4;Fuzzy Logic in a Broad Sense;398
1.4.12.4;Fuzzy Logic and Control;399
1.4.12.4.1;Mamdani-Assilian Controller;400
1.4.12.4.2;Takagi-Sugeno Controller;403
1.4.12.4.3;Approximate Reasoning;403
1.4.12.5;Success of Mamdani Control in Automobile Industry;405
1.4.12.5.1;Engine Idle Speed Control;406
1.4.12.5.2;Flowing Shift-Point Determination;409
1.4.12.6;Fuzzy Logic and Knowledge Discovery in Databases;410
1.4.12.6.1;Fuzzy Clustering;411
1.4.12.6.2;Fuzzy Rule Generation;414
1.4.12.6.3;Transfer Passenger Analysis Based on FCM;416
1.4.12.7;References;418
1.4.13;Chapter17: Statistics of the Field*;422
1.4.13.1;Statistics Part 1: Education;424
1.4.13.1.1;Production of Ph.D. Degrees in Computer Science;424
1.4.13.1.2;Women Earning Degrees in Computer Science;426
1.4.13.1.3;Minorities Earning Degrees in Computer Science;426
1.4.13.1.4;Foreign Students Earning Degrees in Computer Science;428
1.4.13.1.5;Curriculum;431
1.4.13.1.6;Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM);433
1.4.13.2;Statistics Part 2: Publishing;436
1.4.13.2.1;Productivity;436
1.4.13.2.2;Coauthorship;438
1.4.13.2.3;Peer Review;439
1.4.13.2.4;Impact Factor and H Factor;439
1.4.13.2.5;Blogs;441
1.4.13.2.6;Digital Archives, Libraries, and Bibiliographies;441
1.4.13.2.7;Dictionaries, Encyclopedias and Tutorials;443
1.4.13.3;Statistics Part 3: Funding;444
1.4.13.3.1;Federal and State Funding;444
1.4.13.3.2;UNESCO Science Report 2010;448
1.4.13.3.3;Private Funding for Computer Science;449
1.4.13.4;Statistics Part 4: Employment;450
1.4.13.4.1;Employment by Specialty;452
1.4.13.4.2;Foreign-Born SandE Academics;455
1.4.13.4.3;Computing in Industry;455
1.4.13.4.4;Prestige of the Occupation of ``Scientist´´;457
1.4.13.4.5;Computer Science Job Prospects in 2010;458
1.4.13.4.6;Off-Shoring;459
1.4.13.4.7;The U.S. National Laboratories as Employers of CS Researchers;460
1.4.13.5;Statistics Part 5: Professional Associations;463
1.4.13.6;Conclusion;466
1.5;Epilogue;468