Joshi / Dixit Lasers Based Manufacturing

5th International and 26th All India Manufacturing Technology, Design and Research Conference, AIMTDR 2014
2015
ISBN: 978-81-322-2352-8
Verlag: Springer India
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 464 Seiten

Reihe: Topics in Mining, Metallurgy and Materials Engineering

This book presents selected research papers of the AIMTDR 2014 conference on application of laser technology for various manufacturing processes such as cutting, forming, welding, sintering, cladding and micro-machining. State-of-the-art of these technologies in terms of numerical modeling, experimental studies and industrial case studies are presented. This book will enrich the knowledge of budding technocrats, graduate students of mechanical and manufacturing engineering, and researchers working in this area.

Dr. Shrikrishna N. Joshi has completed his doctoral studies in the area of 'Intelligent modeling and optimization of electric discharge machining process' from IIT Bombay in the year 2009. Since then he is working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Guwahati. His research interests are Micro-machining and Micro-bending using Lasers; Computer aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM); Manufacturing process modeling and optimization; and Mechatronics. He is guiding five PhD students those who are working on various research areas such as laser bending, laser induced plasma micro-machining, thin-wall milling and single point diamond turning. Dr. Joshi has about 25 papers published in international journals and conferences of national/international reputes.

Dr. U.S. Dixit obtained a bachelor's degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Roorkee (now Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee) in 1987, an M.Tech. in Mechanical Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kanpur in 1993, and a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from IIT Kanpur in 1998. A Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Dr. Dixit has published numerous papers and five books. He has also edited a book on Metal Forming, guest-edited a number of special journal issues, and is an associate editor for the Journal of Institution of Engineers Series C.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Joshi, Shrikrishna N.

Dixit, Uday Shanker

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;About the Conference;8
3;Editorial Acknowledgments;9
4;Contents;10
5;About the Editors;13
6;1 A Simple Analytical Model of Laser Bending Process;14
6.1;Abstract;14
6.2;1 Introduction;14
6.3;2 Modeling by ABAQUS;17
6.4;3 Model for the Prediction of Bending Angle;19
6.5;4 Validation of Model;23
6.6;5 Estimation of Yield Stress by Inverse Analysis and Model Updating;26
6.7;6 Conclusion;27
6.8;References;27
7;2 Laser Forming of Mild Steel Sheets Using Different Surface Coatings;29
7.1;Abstract;29
7.2;1 Introduction;30
7.2.1;1.1 What Is ``Laser''?;30
7.2.2;1.2 Forming Process;31
7.2.3;1.3 Manufacturing Through Lasers;31
7.3;2 Laser Forming;32
7.3.1;2.1 Parameters Affecting Laser Forming;33
7.3.2;2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Laser Forming;33
7.4;3 Literature Review of Some Recent Work;34
7.5;4 The Objective of the Present Work;35
7.6;5 Experimental Details;36
7.7;6 Effect of Surface Coatings on Energy Absorption;38
7.8;7 Effect of Different Coatings on Line Bending of Mild Steel Sheets;42
7.9;8 Effect of Surface Coatings on Generation of Complex Shaped Surfaces;45
7.9.1;8.1 Dome Shaped Surfaces;45
7.9.2;8.2 Bowl Shaped Surfaces;48
7.10;9 Conclusion;49
7.11;References;50
8;3 Finite Element Simulations of Laser Bending of Small Sized Sheets;52
8.1;Abstract;52
8.2;1 Introduction;52
8.3;2 Finite Element Modeling Using ABAQUS;53
8.4;3 Effect of Parameters on Bending Angle;56
8.4.1;3.1 Effect of Laser Power;57
8.5;4 Conclusions;63
8.6;References;64
9;4 Numerical and Experimental Studies on Pulsed Laser Forming of Sheet Metal;65
9.1;Abstract;65
9.2;1 Introduction;65
9.3;2 Literature Review;66
9.4;3 Theory of Pulsed Laser Forming;67
9.5;4 Finite Element Formulation;68
9.6;5 Experimental Validations;71
9.7;6 Results and Discussion;73
9.8;7 Summary;76
9.9;8 Scope for Future Study;76
9.10;References;76
10;5 Experimental Studies on TGM and BM Dominated Curvilinear Laser Bending of Aluminum Alloy Sheets;78
10.1;Abstract;78
10.2;1 Laser Bending Process;79
10.3;2 Laser Bending Mechanisms;81
10.3.1;2.1 Temperature Gradient Mechanism (TGM);81
10.3.2;2.2 Buckling Mechanism (BM);82
10.3.3;2.3 Upsetting Mechanism (UM);84
10.4;3 Edge Effect in Laser Bending Process;85
10.5;4 Curvilinear Laser Bending;86
10.6;5 Experimental Studies on TGM and BM Curvilinear Laser Bending of Aluminum Alloy;88
10.6.1;5.1 Experimental Details;88
10.6.2;5.2 Results and Discussion;92
10.6.2.1;5.2.1 Laser Bending Using TGM;92
10.6.2.2;5.2.2 Laser Bending of Thin Sheets Using BM;95
10.7;6 Conclusions;98
10.8;References;99
11;6 Mathematical Formulation for Development of Compound Curve Surface by Laser Line Heating;101
11.1;Abstract;101
11.2;1 Introduction;101
11.3;2 Basics of Differential Geometry of Surfaces;102
11.3.1;2.1 Surfaces;102
11.3.2;2.2 Regular Surfaces;102
11.3.2.1;2.2.1 The First Fundamental Form;104
11.3.2.1.1;Curve Length on a Surface;104
11.3.2.1.2;Surface Area;105
11.3.2.2;2.2.2 Second Fundamental Forms;105
11.3.2.2.1;Normal Curvature and Principal Curvature;106
11.3.2.3;2.2.3 Gaussian and Mean Curvatures;107
11.4;3 Surface Development;108
11.4.1;3.1 Determination of Strain Field;108
11.4.1.1;3.1.1 Formulation;108
11.4.2;3.2 Determination of the Planar Developed Shape;109
11.4.3;3.3 Heating Line Generation;110
11.4.3.1;3.3.1 Bending Paths;110
11.4.3.2;3.3.2 Shrinkage Path;112
11.5;4 Conclusions;112
11.6;References;113
12;7 Surface Alloying of Aluminum with Copper Using CO2 Laser;114
12.1;Abstract;114
12.2;1 Introduction;114
12.3;2 Significances of Surface Alloying;115
12.4;3 Significance of (CO2) Laser for Surface Alloying;115
12.5;4 Details of Experiments;116
12.6;5 Results and Discussions;117
12.6.1;5.1 Crystal Size and Lattice Strain;117
12.6.2;5.2 Surface Roughness;118
12.6.3;5.3 Micro Hardness Analysis;118
12.6.4;5.4 Microstructure and Morphology Analysis;120
12.6.5;5.5 Porosity Challenges in Alloying;122
12.6.6;5.6 Conclusions;123
12.7;References;123
13;8 Effect of Pulsed Nd:YAG Laser Parameters in Preplaced TiC Coating on Aluminium Substrate;124
13.1;Abstract;124
13.2;1 Introduction;125
13.3;2 Various Types of Laser Surface Modification Techniques;125
13.3.1;2.1 Laser Surface Modification Without Use of External Material;126
13.3.1.1;2.1.1 Laser Surface Heat Treatment;126
13.3.1.2;2.1.2 Laser Surface Melting and Re-solidification;126
13.3.1.3;2.1.3 Laser Shock Peening;127
13.3.2;2.2 Laser Surface Modification by Using External Material;127
13.3.2.1;2.2.1 Based on Degree of Mixing of Coating Material with Substrate Surface;128
13.3.2.1.1;Laser Alloying;128
13.3.2.1.2;Laser Dispersing;128
13.3.2.1.3;Laser Cladding;128
13.3.2.2;2.2.2 Based on the Mode of Supply of Coating Material;129
13.3.2.2.1;Preplaced Powder Method;129
13.3.2.2.2;Powder Injection Method;130
13.3.2.2.3;Wire Feeding Method;130
13.4;3 Advantages, Limitations and Applications of Laser Coating Process;131
13.4.1;3.1 Advantages;131
13.4.2;3.2 Limitations;131
13.4.3;3.3 Applications;132
13.5;4 TiC Coating on Al Substrate Using Pulse Nd:YAG Laser;132
13.5.1;4.1 Laser Coating on Al Substrate;132
13.5.2;4.2 Laser Coating with TiC;134
13.5.3;4.3 Laser Coating Using Pulsed Laser;135
13.6;5 Experimental Planning Procedures;136
13.7;6 Results and Discussion;137
13.7.1;6.1 Micro-hardness;137
13.7.2;6.2 Microstructure Analysis;140
13.8;7 Conclusion;141
13.9;References;142
14;9 Finite Element Simulation of Laser Cladding for Tool Steel Repair;145
14.1;Abstract;145
14.2;1 Introduction;146
14.3;2 Process Modelling;149
14.3.1;2.1 Physical Description of Process;149
14.3.2;2.2 Model Assumptions;151
14.3.3;2.3 Governing Equations;151
14.3.4;2.4 Numerical Formulation;153
14.3.5;2.5 Loading and Boundary Conditions;154
14.3.6;2.6 Material Properties;155
14.4;3 Results and Discussion;156
14.4.1;3.1 Temperature Field;156
14.4.2;3.2 Results in Dilution and Heat Affected Zone;157
14.4.3;3.3 Residual Stress Analysis;158
14.5;4 Conclusions;159
14.6;References;160
15;10 Excimer Laser Micromachining and its Applications;163
15.1;Abstract;163
15.2;1 Introduction;164
15.3;2 Types of Excimer Laser;165
15.4;3 Laser Interaction with Polymers;169
15.5;4 Excimer Laser Machining Process;172
15.6;5 Different Polymers Used for Industrial Micromachining;176
15.7;6 Applications of Excimer Laser;177
15.7.1;6.1 Fabrication of Microfluidic System;177
15.7.2;6.2 Fabrication of Micro Lens Array;179
15.8;7 Excimer Laser Micromachining Under Gaseous Environment;179
15.9;8 Conclusions;182
15.10;Acknowledgments;182
15.11;References;182
16;11 Laser Induced Micromachining and Preliminary Experiments on Manufacturing of Micro-channel on Mild Steel;184
16.1;Abstract;184
16.2;1 Introduction;184
16.2.1;1.1 Laser Induced Micromachining;185
16.2.1.1;1.1.1 Process Mechanism of Laser Induced Micromachining;187
16.2.2;1.2 Laser Induced Plasma Micromachining;189
16.2.3;1.3 Laser Induced Plasma Assisted Ablation (LIPAA);190
16.2.4;1.4 Advantages of LIMM;191
16.2.5;1.5 Limitations of LIMM;191
16.3;2 Literature Review on Laser Induced Micromachining;192
16.3.1;2.1 Numerical Studies of LIMM;192
16.3.2;2.2 Experimental Studies on LIMM;193
16.4;3 Preliminary Experimentation on Laser Induced Micromachining;200
16.5;4 Summary;202
16.6;References;203
17;12 Fabrication of Micro Lens Array by Excimer Laser Micromachining;206
17.1;Abstract;206
17.2;1 Introduction;206
17.3;2 Parameters of Laser Radiation;207
17.4;3 Key Terminologies in Laser Material Interactions;207
17.5;4 Mechanism of Laser Ablation of Polymers;208
17.6;5 Analysis and Observations;210
17.6.1;5.1 Nature of Ablation;210
17.6.2;5.2 Plume Interaction During the Laser Pulse;211
17.6.3;5.3 Ablation Rate and Threshold;211
17.6.4;5.4 Mask Projection Technique;213
17.7;6 Fabrication of Micro Lens Array;216
17.7.1;6.1 Experimental Setup;217
17.7.2;6.2 Experimental Procedure;218
17.8;7 Result and Discussion;218
17.8.1;7.1 Analysis of Masks;218
17.8.2;7.2 Analysis of Micro Lens Profiles;219
17.8.2.1;7.2.1 Measurement of Ablation Rate of PMMA;220
17.8.2.2;7.2.2 Calculation of Theoretical Profile;221
17.8.2.3;7.2.3 Micro Lens Profile---Experimental Results;222
17.9;8 Conclusions;223
17.10;Acknowledgments;223
17.11;References;223
18;13 Studies on CO2 Laser Micromachining on PMMA to Fabricate Micro Channel for Microfluidic Applications;226
18.1;Abstract;226
18.2;1 Introduction;227
18.2.1;1.1 Theoretical Background;228
18.2.2;1.2 Mechanism of Material Removal During CO2 Laser Micromachining of PMMA;233
18.3;2 Experimental Set-Up;233
18.3.1;2.1 Micromachining of PMMA Substrate;233
18.3.2;2.2 Characterization of Micro-machined PMMA Substrate;234
18.4;3 Optimization of CO2 Laser Process Parameters for Smooth Surface;235
18.4.1;3.1 Hybrid Micro Machining to Obtain Smooth Surface;239
18.4.2;3.2 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) Imaging of PMMA Substrate;239
18.5;4 Wettability Measurements for Microchannels;240
18.5.1;4.1 Bacterial Cell Viability Studies on Surface Obtained by Hybrid Micromachining;242
18.6;5 Conclusion;242
18.7;References;242
19;14 Energy Based Analysis of Laser Microchanneling Process on Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA);244
19.1;Abstract;244
19.2;1 Introduction;244
19.3;2 Determination of Material Properties;246
19.4;3 Energy Based Modeling of CO2 Laser Microchanneling of PMMA;250
19.5;4 Material Removal Mechanism;255
19.6;5 Results and Discussion;256
19.7;6 Conclusions;257
19.8;Acknowledgments;257
19.9;References;257
20;15 Fiber Laser Micro-machining of Ti-6Al-4V;259
20.1;Abstract;259
20.2;1 Introduction;260
20.2.1;1.1 Advantages of Fiber Lasers Over Other Solid State and Gas Lasers;262
20.2.2;1.2 Need of Laser Beam Micro-grooving Process;262
20.2.3;1.3 Importance of Ti-6Al-4V Micro-grooves in Research and Industrial Perspective;263
20.2.4;1.4 Basic Mechanism of Laser Micro-grooving Process of Ti-6Al-4V;264
20.2.5;1.5 Literature Review on Laser Beam Micro-machining of Ti-6Al-4V;265
20.3;2 Working Principle of Fiber Laser Generation;268
20.4;3 Experimental Studies on Fiber Laser Micro-machining of Ti-6Al-4V;269
20.4.1;3.1 Fiber Laser Micro-machining Setup;269
20.4.2;3.2 Experimental Planing;270
20.4.3;3.3 Experimental Results and Discussions;272
20.4.4;3.4 Influence of Process Parameters on Micro-groove Geometry and Surface Roughness;272
20.4.4.1;3.4.1 Influence of Scan Speed on Width, Depth and Surface Roughness on Ti-6Al-4V Micro-grooves;274
20.4.4.2;3.4.2 Influence of Pulse Frequency on Width, Depth and Surface Roughness on Ti-6Al-4V Micro-grooves;275
20.4.4.3;3.4.3 Influence of Number of Pass on Width, Depth and Surface Roughness on Ti-6Al-4V Micro-grooves;277
20.4.4.4;3.4.4 Influence of Average Power on Width, Depth and Surface Roughness;278
20.4.5;3.5 Photographic Exhibits of Ti-6Al-4V Micro-grooves and Its Surface Characteristics;280
20.5;4 Conclusions;282
20.6;Acknowledgments;283
20.7;References;283
21;16 Nd:YAG Laser Marking on Zirconia Ceramic;286
21.1;Abstract;286
21.2;1 Introduction;287
21.3;2 Basic Mechanism of Laser Marking;289
21.3.1;2.1 Marking by Material Removal from the Surface;289
21.3.1.1;2.1.1 Etching;289
21.3.1.2;2.1.2 Surface Melting;290
21.3.1.3;2.1.3 Ablation;290
21.3.1.4;2.1.4 Engraving;291
21.3.2;2.2 Marking by Surface Modification;292
21.3.2.1;2.2.1 Foaming;292
21.3.2.2;2.2.2 Carbonisation;292
21.3.2.3;2.2.3 Annealing;293
21.3.2.4;2.2.4 Colouring;293
21.4;3 Nd:YAG Laser Marking Process Parameters;294
21.4.1;3.1 Pulse Frequency;294
21.4.2;3.2 Scanning Speed;295
21.4.3;3.3 Focused Spot Size;295
21.4.4;3.4 Laser Power;295
21.4.5;3.5 Lamp Current;297
21.4.6;3.6 Pulse Width;297
21.4.7;3.7 Air Pressure;297
21.5;4 Evaluation of Nd:YAG Laser Marking Quality Characteristics;298
21.5.1;4.1 Mark Width;298
21.5.2;4.2 Mark Depth;298
21.5.3;4.3 Mark Intensity;298
21.6;5 Laser Marking Technique and Procedure Used for Experimentation;299
21.7;6 Optimization of Nd:YAG Laser Marking Based on RSM and ANN Model;301
21.7.1;6.1 Experimental Planning and Development of Empirical Model Based on RSM;301
21.7.1.1;6.1.1 Analysis of Process Parameters on Marking Quality Characteristics on Zirconia;302
21.7.1.1.1;Parametric Influences on Mark Width;302
21.7.1.1.2;Parametric Influences on Mark Depth;304
21.7.1.1.3;Parametric Influences on Mark Intensity;306
21.7.1.2;6.1.2 Multi-objective Optimization of Nd:YAG Laser Marking Quality Characteristics;308
21.7.2;6.2 Development of Artificial Neural Network;309
21.7.2.1;6.2.1 ANN Results and Analysis;312
21.7.3;6.3 Optimization and Prediction Through ANN;316
21.8;7 Conclusions;318
21.9;Acknowledgments;318
21.10;References;318
22;17 Nd:YAG Laser Microdrilling of SiC-30BN Nanocomposite: Experimental Study and Process Optimization;320
22.1;Abstract;320
22.2;1 Introduction;321
22.2.1;1.1 Laser Beam Machining;321
22.2.1.1;1.1.1 Laser Beam Drilling;323
22.2.1.1.1;Laser Beam Microdrilling;324
22.3;2 Mechanism of Material Removal During Laser Beam Drilling;326
22.4;3 Overview of Proposed Optimization Methodology;328
22.5;4 Experimental Setup Used in the Present Research;329
22.5.1;4.1 Nd:YAG Laser Beam Machining Set up;329
22.5.2;4.2 Selection of Process Parameters and Workpiece Material;333
22.6;5 Experimental Observation;334
22.7;6 Determination of Optimal Parameter Settings;336
22.7.1;6.1 Grey Relational Generating;336
22.7.2;6.2 Determination of Grey Relational Coefficients;337
22.7.3;6.3 Grey Relational Grades Determination;337
22.8;7 ANOVA Analysis;339
22.9;8 Confirmation Test;341
22.10;9 Conclusion;342
22.11;References;342
23;18 Pulsed Nd:YAG Laser Micro-turning Process of Alumina Ceramics;345
23.1;Abstract;345
23.2;1 Introduction;346
23.3;2 Laser Micro-turning Process;347
23.4;3 Development of Laser Micro-turning System;351
23.5;4 Experimental Methodology of Laser Micro-turning;353
23.6;5 Various Measurement Schemes;354
23.7;6 Results and Discussion;355
23.7.1;6.1 Study the Influences of Overlap Factors on Surface Roughness Criterion;356
23.7.1.1;6.1.1 Influence of Spot Overlap on Surface Roughness (Ra);358
23.7.1.2;6.1.2 Influence of Circumferential Overlap on Surface Roughness (Ra);359
23.7.1.3;6.1.3 Microscopic Analysis of Laser Micro-turned Surface;361
23.7.2;6.2 Study of Defocusing Conditions at Multi-objective Optimization to Achieve Better Quality Surface;362
23.7.2.1;6.2.1 Multi-objective Optimization of Surface Roughness and Depth Deviation;363
23.7.2.2;6.2.2 Study of Laser Defocusing Conditions During Laser Micro-turning;364
23.7.2.3;6.2.3 Analysis Based on SEM Micrographs of Laser Micro-turned Surface;370
23.7.3;6.3 Comparative Study of Surface Roughness Criteria at Laser Focused and Defocused Conditions During Laser Micro-turning;371
23.8;7 Conclusions;381
23.9;Acknowledgments;381
23.10;References;381
24;19 A Literature Review on CO2 Laser Welding;383
24.1;Abstract;383
24.2;1 Introduction;383
24.3;2 Laser Welding;384
24.3.1;2.1 CO2 Laser Welding;384
24.3.2;2.2 Hybrid Laser Welding;385
24.4;3 Studies on Mechanical Properties of Welded Joints;386
24.5;4 Microstructural Studies of Welded Joints;387
24.6;5 Modelling of Laser Welding Processes;390
24.6.1;5.1 Analytical Modelling for Laser Welding;390
24.6.2;5.2 Numerical Modelling for Laser Welding;391
24.7;6 Studies on the Laser Welding Process Parameters Optimization;394
24.8;7 Study the Effect of External Process Parameters on Laser Welding;395
24.8.1;7.1 Study the Effect of Assistance Gases;395
24.8.2;7.2 Study the Effect of Electric, Magnetic Field and Electrical Potential;396
24.9;8 Image Processing and Feature Extraction;397
24.10;9 Summary;397
24.11;References;398
25;20 Fiber Laser Welding in a Controlled Inert Gas Atmosphere: An Experimental and Numerical Investigation;401
25.1;Abstract;401
25.2;1 Introduction;402
25.3;2 Materials and Methods;405
25.4;3 Theoretical Background;408
25.5;4 Results and Discussion;411
25.6;5 Conclusions;419
25.7;Acknowledgments;419
25.8;References;419
26;21 A 3-D Finite Element Analysis of Transient Temperature Profile of Laser Welded Ti-6Al-4V Alloy;422
26.1;Abstract;422
26.2;1 Introduction;422
26.2.1;1.1 Weldability of Titanium Alloy;424
26.3;2 Literature Survey on Welding of Ti Alloy;425
26.4;3 FEM Simulation of LBW Process;430
26.4.1;3.1 Preprocessing;431
26.4.1.1;3.1.1 Element Type;431
26.4.1.2;3.1.2 Material Properties;431
26.4.1.3;3.1.3 Meshing;432
26.4.2;3.2 Solution;432
26.4.3;3.3 Post Processing;433
26.5;4 Governing Equation and Boundary Conditions;433
26.5.1;4.1 Heat Source Model;434
26.6;5 Finite Element Modelling;435
26.7;6 Results and Discussion;436
26.8;7 Conclusions;439
26.9;References;439
27;22 Selective Laser Sintering: A Case Study of Tungsten Carbide and Cobalt Powder Sintering by Pulsed Nd:YAG Laser;442
27.1;Abstract;442
27.2;1 Introduction;443
27.2.1;1.1 Background;443
27.2.2;1.2 Principle of SLS Process;444
27.2.3;1.3 Laser Material Interaction in SLS Process;444
27.2.4;1.4 Sintering Mechanism of WC--Co Powder;445
27.2.5;1.5 Process Parameters of SLS Process;445
27.2.5.1;1.5.1 Process Parameters for Continuous Wave Lasers (Fiber/CO2);445
27.2.5.2;1.5.2 Process Parameters for Modulated/Pulse Wave Lasers (Fiber/Nd:YAG);446
27.2.6;1.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of SLS;446
27.2.6.1;1.6.1 Advantages of SLS;446
27.2.6.2;1.6.2 Disadvantages of SLS;447
27.2.7;1.7 Applications of Selective Laser Sintering Process;447
27.3;2 Experimental Details;447
27.3.1;2.1 Experimental Setup for Pulsed Laser Sintering;447
27.3.2;2.2 Inert Gas Chamber with Powder Spreading Arrangement;448
27.3.3;2.3 Design of Experiments;450
27.3.4;2.4 Procedure;450
27.4;3 Results and Discussion;452
27.4.1;3.1 Taguchi Analysis for Density, Micro-hardness and Porosity;452
27.4.1.1;3.1.1 ANOVA for Density;452
27.4.1.2;3.1.2 Optimal Parameters for Higher Density;453
27.4.1.3;3.1.3 ANOVA for Microhardness;453
27.4.1.4;3.1.4 Optimal Parameters for Higher Microhardness;453
27.4.1.5;3.1.5 ANOVA for Porosity;454
27.4.1.6;3.1.6 Optimal Parameters for Lower Porosity;455
27.4.2;3.2 Micro-structural Characterization;456
27.4.3;3.3 XRD Analysis;457
27.5;4 Conclusions;458
27.6;References;459
28;AuthorIndex;461
29;SubjectIndex;463