Spliethoff Power Generation from Solid Fuels

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-642-02856-4
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 674 Seiten

Reihe: Power Systems

Power Generation from Solid Fuels introduces the different technologies to produce heat and power from solid fossil (hard coal, brown coal) and renewable (biomass, waste) fuels, such as combustion and gasification, steam power plants and combined cycles etc. The book discusses technologies with regard to their efficiency, emissions, operational behavior, residues and costs. Besides proven state of the art processes, the focus is on the potential of new technologies currently under development or demonstration. The main motivation of the book is to explain the technical possibilities for reducing CO2 emissions from solid fuels. The strategies which are treated are: more efficient power and heat generation technologies, processes for the utilisation of renewable solid fuels, such as biomass and waste, and technologies for carbon capture and storage. Power Generation from Solid Fuels provides, both to academia and industry, a concise treatment of industrial combustion of all types of solid, hopefully inspiring the next generation of engineers and scientists.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Spliethoff, Hartmut

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Contents;10
3;List of Figures;16
4;List of Tables;32
5;List of Symbols;36
6;1 Motivation;39
6.1;1.1 Primary Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions;39
6.1.1;1.1.1 Development of Primary Energy Consumption in the Past 40 Years;39
6.1.2;1.1.2 Developments Until 2030;39
6.2;1.2 Greenhouse Effect and Impacts on the Climate;43
6.2.1;1.2.1 Greenhouse Effect;44
6.2.2;1.2.2 Impacts;46
6.2.3;1.2.3 Scenarios of the World Climate;46
6.3;1.3 Strategies of CO2 Reduction;48
6.3.1;1.3.1 Substitution;48
6.3.2;1.3.2 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS);49
6.3.3;1.3.3 Energy Saving;50
6.3.4;1.3.4 Mitigation Scenarios;50
6.4;References;51
7;2 Solid Fuels;52
7.1;2.1 Fossil Fuels;52
7.1.1;2.1.1 Origin and Classification of Coal Types;52
7.1.2;2.1.2 Composition and Properties of Solid Fuels;53
7.1.2.1;2.1.2.1 Petrographic Analysis;60
7.1.3;2.1.3 Reserves of Solid Fuels;62
7.2;2.2 Renewable Solid Fuels;66
7.2.1;2.2.1 Potential and Current Utilisation;66
7.2.1.1;2.2.1.1 Biomass from Farming and Forestry;67
7.2.1.2;2.2.1.2 Wastes;72
7.2.1.3;2.2.1.3 Refuse-Derived Fuels;74
7.2.1.4;2.2.1.4 Sewage Sludge;75
7.2.2;2.2.2 Considerations of the CO2 Neutrality of Regenerative Fuels;77
7.2.2.1;2.2.2.1 Comparison of Miscanthus and Hard Coal on a Greenhouse Gas Emissions Basis;77
7.2.2.2;2.2.2.2 Harvest Ratios;79
7.2.3;2.2.3 Fuel Characteristics of Biomass;79
7.2.3.1;2.2.3.1 Biomass from Farming and Forestry;79
7.2.3.2;2.2.3.2 Waste;86
7.2.3.3;2.2.3.3 Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF);87
7.2.3.4;2.2.3.4 Sewage Sludge;88
7.3;References;91
8;3 Thermodynamics Fundamentals;94
8.1;3.1 Cycles;94
8.1.1;3.1.1 Carnot Cycle;94
8.1.2;3.1.2 Joule--Thomson Process;95
8.1.3;3.1.3 Clausius--Rankine Cycle;98
8.2;3.2 Steam Power Cycle: Energy and Exergy Considerations;101
8.2.1;3.2.1 Steam Generator Energy and Exergy Efficiencies;104
8.2.2;3.2.2 Energy and Exergy Cycle Efficiencies;106
8.2.3;3.2.3 Energy and Exergy Efficiency of the Total Cycle;107
8.3;References;108
9;4 Steam Power Stations for Electricity and Heat Generation ;109
9.1;4.1 Pulverised Hard Coal Fired Steam Power Plants;109
9.1.1;4.1.1 Energy Conversion and System Components;109
9.1.2;4.1.2 Design of a Condensation Power Plant;111
9.1.3;4.1.3 Development History of Power Plants -- Correlation Between Unit Size, Availability and Efficiency;113
9.1.4;4.1.4 Reference Power Plant;117
9.2;4.2 Steam Generators;117
9.2.1;4.2.1 Flow and Heat Transfer Inside a Tube;119
9.2.2;4.2.2 Evaporator Configurations;123
9.2.2.1;4.2.2.1 Natural Circulation;123
9.2.2.2;4.2.2.2 Forced Circulation;125
9.2.2.3;4.2.2.3 Once-Through Systems;126
9.2.3;4.2.3 Steam Generator Construction Types;129
9.2.3.1;4.2.3.1 Single-Pass Boilers and Two-Pass Boilers;129
9.2.4;4.2.4 Operating Regimes and Control Modes;131
9.2.4.1;4.2.4.1 Operating Regimes;131
9.2.4.2;4.2.4.2 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Control;132
9.2.4.3;4.2.4.3 Constant-Pressure and Sliding-Pressure Operation;133
9.2.4.4;4.2.4.4 Impacts on the Turbine by Sliding-Pressure or Constant-Pressure Operation;135
9.2.4.5;4.2.4.5 Impacts on Circulation or Once-Through Steam Generators by Sliding-Pressure or Constant-Pressure Operation;136
9.2.4.6;4.2.4.6 Start-Up;138
9.3;4.3 Design of a Condensation Power Plant;140
9.3.1;4.3.1 Requirements and Boundary Conditions;140
9.3.1.1;4.3.1.1 Fuel;141
9.3.1.2;4.3.1.2 Operating Regime;141
9.3.1.3;4.3.1.3 General Conditions and Official Directives;141
9.3.1.4;4.3.1.4 Efficiency;142
9.3.1.5;4.3.1.5 Availability;143
9.3.1.6;4.3.1.6 Costs;143
9.3.1.7;4.3.1.7 Serviceability;145
9.3.1.8;4.3.1.8 Design Life;146
9.3.2;4.3.2 Thermodynamic Design of the Power Plant Cycle;146
9.3.3;4.3.3 Heat Balance of the Boiler and Boiler Efficiency;150
9.3.4;4.3.4 Design of the Furnace;151
9.3.4.1;4.3.4.1 Volumetric Heat Release Rate;153
9.3.4.2;4.3.4.2 Cross-Sectional Area Heat Release Rate;153
9.3.4.3;4.3.4.3 Surface Heat Release Rate;154
9.3.4.4;4.3.4.4 Burner-Belt Heat Release Rate;154
9.3.4.5;4.3.4.5 Calculation of the Flue Gas Cooling;154
9.3.5;4.3.5 Design of the Steam Generator and of the HeatingSurfaces;157
9.3.5.1;4.3.5.1 Impact of the Live Steam Pressure;160
9.3.5.2;4.3.5.2 Design of the Evaporator;162
9.3.5.3;4.3.5.3 Evaporators with Vertical Internally Rifled Tubes;165
9.3.5.4;4.3.5.4 Evaporator Stability;168
9.3.5.5;4.3.5.5 Design of the Convective Heating Surfaces;169
9.3.5.6;4.3.5.6 Air Preheater;175
9.3.6;4.3.6 Design of the Flue Gas Cleaning Units and theAuxiliaries;177
9.3.6.1;4.3.6.1 Design of the Flue Gas Cleaning Units;177
9.3.6.2;4.3.6.2 Design of the Auxiliaries;177
9.4;4.4 Possibilities for Efficiency Increases in the Development of a Steam Power Plant;177
9.4.1;4.4.1 Increases in Thermal Efficiencies;178
9.4.1.1;4.4.1.1 Increasing the Live Steam and Reheater Steam Conditions, Single or Double Reheating and Reheater Spraying;178
9.4.1.2;4.4.1.2 Influence of Feed Water Preheating;183
9.4.1.3;4.4.1.3 Lower Heat Dissipation Temperatures -- Optimisation of the ``Cold End'';187
9.4.2;4.4.2 Reduction of Losses;197
9.4.2.1;4.4.2.1 Internal Turbine Efficiency and Losses;197
9.4.2.2;4.4.2.2 Steam Generator Losses;198
9.4.2.3;4.4.2.3 Loss Through Reheating;203
9.4.2.4;4.4.2.4 Advanced Flue Gas Heat Utilisation;205
9.4.2.5;4.4.2.5 Other Types of Losses;207
9.4.3;4.4.3 Reduction of the Auxiliary Power Requirements;208
9.4.4;4.4.4 Losses in Part-Load Operation;211
9.4.4.1;4.4.4.1 Impact of the Operating Regime of the Steam Generator and Turbine;211
9.4.4.2;4.4.4.2 Example for the Reference Power Plant;212
9.4.5;4.4.5 Losses During Start-Up and Shutdown;214
9.4.6;4.4.6 Efficiency of Power Plants During Operation;215
9.4.7;4.4.7 Fuel Drying for Brown Coal;215
9.4.7.1;4.4.7.1 Warm-Gas Drying;217
9.4.7.2;4.4.7.2 Drying by Extraction Steam;217
9.4.7.3;4.4.7.3 Exploitation of the Condensation Heat of the Water Vapours;218
9.5;4.5 Effects on Steam Generator Construction;220
9.5.1;4.5.1 Membrane Wall;222
9.5.2;4.5.2 Heating Surfaces of the Final Superheater;230
9.5.3;4.5.3 High-Pressure Outlet Header;237
9.5.3.1;4.5.3.1 Impacts on the Turbine;238
9.5.4;4.5.4 Furnaces Fuelled by Dried Brown Coal;240
9.6;4.6 Developments -- State of the Art and Future;242
9.6.1;4.6.1 Hard Coal;242
9.6.2;4.6.2 Brown Coal;250
9.7;References;250
10;5 Combustion Systems for Solid Fossil Fuels ;256
10.1;5.1 Combustion Fundamentals;258
10.1.1;5.1.1 Drying;259
10.1.2;5.1.2 Pyrolysis;260
10.1.3;5.1.3 Ignition;262
10.1.4;5.1.4 Combustion of Volatile Matter;265
10.1.5;5.1.5 Combustion of the Residual Char;265
10.2;5.2 Pollutant Formation Fundamentals;269
10.2.1;5.2.1 Nitrogen Oxides;269
10.2.1.1;5.2.1.1 Thermal NO Formation;270
10.2.1.2;5.2.1.2 Prompt NO Formation;271
10.2.1.3;5.2.1.3 NO Formation from Fuel Nitrogen;271
10.2.1.4;5.2.1.4 NO-Reducing Mechanisms;273
10.2.2;5.2.2 Sulphur Oxides;276
10.2.3;5.2.3 Ash formation;277
10.2.4;5.2.4 Products of Incomplete Combustion;280
10.3;5.3 Pulverised Fuel Firing;281
10.3.1;5.3.1 Pulverised Fuel Firing Systems;281
10.3.2;5.3.2 Fuel Preparation;284
10.3.2.1;5.3.2.1 Drying;284
10.3.2.2;5.3.2.2 Milling;285
10.3.2.3;5.3.2.3 Classifiers;287
10.3.3;5.3.3 Burners;287
10.3.4;5.3.4 Dry-Bottom Firing;289
10.3.5;5.3.5 Slag-Tap Firing;292
10.3.5.1;5.3.5.1 Large-Volume Slag-Tap Boilers;292
10.3.5.2;5.3.5.2 Cyclone Furnaces;296
10.4;5.4 Fluidised Bed Firing Systems;298
10.4.1;5.4.1 Bubbling Fluidised Bed Furnaces;299
10.4.2;5.4.2 Circulating Fluidised Bed Furnaces;301
10.4.2.1;5.4.2.1 Systems with External Fluidised Bed Heat Exchangers;302
10.4.2.2;5.4.2.2 Systems with Plate Heat Exchangers;303
10.4.2.3;5.4.2.3 Solid Separation Systems;303
10.4.2.4;5.4.2.4 Future Developments;305
10.5;5.5 Stoker/Grate Firing Systems;306
10.5.1;5.5.1 Travelling Grate Stoker Firing;306
10.5.2;5.5.2 Self-Raking Type Moving-Grate Stokers;308
10.5.3;5.5.3 Vibrating-Grate Stokers;310
10.6;5.6 Legislation and Emission Limits;310
10.7;5.7 Methods for NOx Reduction;312
10.7.1;5.7.1 Combustion Engineering Measures;314
10.7.1.1;5.7.1.1 Investigations at Experimental Plants;316
10.7.1.2;5.7.1.2 NOx Abatement in Pulverised Coal Combustion -- State of the Art;325
10.7.1.3;5.7.1.3 NOx and N2O Reduction in Fluidised Bed Combustion -- State of the Art;335
10.7.1.4;5.7.1.4 NOx Reduction in Grate Firing Systems -- State of the Art;336
10.7.2;5.7.2 NOx Reduction Methods, SNCR and SCR (Secondary Measures);337
10.7.2.1;5.7.2.1 Selective Non-catalytic Reduction (SNCR);337
10.7.2.2;5.7.2.2 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR);338
10.7.3;5.7.3 Dissemination and Costs;341
10.8;5.8 SO2-Reduction Methods;342
10.8.1;5.8.1 Methods to Reduce the Sulphur Content of the Fuel;343
10.8.2;5.8.2 Methods of Fuel Gas Desulphurisation;343
10.8.2.1;5.8.2.1 Additive Injection in the Furnace;343
10.8.2.2;5.8.2.2 Downstream Desulphurisation (Semi-dry, Wet);347
10.8.3;5.8.3 Dissemination and Costs;350
10.9;5.9 Particulate Control Methods;350
10.9.1;5.9.1 Mechanical Separators (Inertia Separators);351
10.9.2;5.9.2 Electrostatic Precipitators;352
10.9.3;5.9.3 Fabric Filters;354
10.9.4;5.9.4 Applications and Costs;356
10.10;5.10 Effect of Slag, Ash and Flue Gas on Furnace Walls and Convective Heat Transfer Surfaces (Operational Problems);357
10.10.1;5.10.1 Slagging;359
10.10.1.1;5.10.1.1 The Process of Slagging;359
10.10.1.2;5.10.1.2 Evaluation of the Slagging Behaviour;361
10.10.1.3;5.10.1.3 Impacts, Countermeasures and Remedial Actions;368
10.10.2;5.10.2 Fouling;369
10.10.3;5.10.3 Erosion;370
10.10.4;5.10.4 High-Temperature Corrosion;371
10.10.4.1;5.10.4.1 Furnace Corrosion Through Hydrogen Chloride;371
10.10.4.2;5.10.4.2 Corrosion of the Convective Heat Transfer Surfaces by Molten Salts;372
10.10.4.3;5.10.4.3 Corrosion of the Convective Heat Transfer Surfaces by Chlorine-Induced High-Temperature Corrosion;374
10.11;5.11 Residual Matter;375
10.11.1;5.11.1 Forming and Quantities;375
10.11.1.1;5.11.1.1 Ashes from Pulverised Hard Coal Combustion;376
10.11.1.2;5.11.1.2 Ashes from Pulverised Brown Coal Combustion;377
10.11.1.3;5.11.1.3 Ashes from Fluidised Bed Combustion;377
10.11.1.4;5.11.1.4 Residual Matter from Flue Gas Desulphurisation;378
10.11.2;5.11.2 Commercial Exploitation;379
10.11.2.1;5.11.2.1 Ash from Combustion of Pulverised Hard Coal;379
10.11.2.2;5.11.2.2 Ash from Combustion of Pulverised Brown Coal;381
10.11.2.3;5.11.2.3 Ash from Fluidised Bed Combustion;381
10.11.2.4;5.11.2.4 Residual Matter from Flue Gas Desulphurisation;382
10.11.2.5;5.11.2.5 Heavy Metals and Leaching Behaviour of Residual Matter;382
10.11.2.6;5.11.2.6 State of the Art of Reuse of Residual Materials;384
10.12;References;386
11;6 Power Generation from Biomass and Waste;395
11.1;6.1 Power Production Pathways;395
11.1.1;6.1.1 Techniques Involving Combustion;395
11.1.2;6.1.2 Techniques Involving Gasification;397
11.2;6.2 Biomass Combustion Systems;398
11.2.1;6.2.1 Capacities and Types;398
11.2.2;6.2.2 Impact of Load and Forms of Delivery of the Fuel Types;399
11.2.3;6.2.3 Furnace Types;400
11.2.3.1;6.2.3.1 Shaft Furnaces;400
11.2.3.2;6.2.3.2 Underfeed Firing;401
11.2.3.3;6.2.3.3 Stokers;402
11.2.3.4;6.2.3.4 ``Cigar Burner'' for Herbaceous Biomass Bales;403
11.2.3.5;6.2.3.5 Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC);404
11.2.3.6;6.2.3.6 Pulverised Fuel Combustion (PFC);406
11.2.4;6.2.4 Flue Gas Cleaning and Ash Disposal;407
11.2.4.1;6.2.4.1 Particulate Control;408
11.2.4.2;6.2.4.2 Nitrogen Oxides and Sulphur Oxide;409
11.2.4.3;6.2.4.3 Chlorine;410
11.2.4.4;6.2.4.4 Ash Utilisation;410
11.2.5;6.2.5 Operational Problems;411
11.3;6.3 Biomass Gasification;413
11.3.1;6.3.1 Reactor Design Types;414
11.3.1.1;6.3.1.1 Fixed Bed Gasifiers;416
11.3.2;6.3.2 Gas Utilisation and Quality Requirements;423
11.3.2.1;6.3.2.1 Gas Utilisation in Boilers and Cement Kilns;423
11.3.3;6.3.3 Gas Cleaning;425
11.3.3.1;6.3.3.1 Tar Formation in Gasification;425
11.3.3.2;6.3.3.2 Secondary Tar Reduction;429
11.3.3.3;6.3.3.3 Particle Cleaning;432
11.3.4;6.3.4 Power Production Processes;432
11.4;6.4 Thermal Utilisation of Waste (Energy from Waste);435
11.4.1;6.4.1 Historical Development of Energy from WasteSystems (EfW);439
11.4.2;6.4.2 Grate-Based Combustion Systems;442
11.4.2.1;6.4.2.1 Design of the Grate Firing System;444
11.4.2.2;6.4.2.2 Grate Variants;446
11.4.2.3;6.4.2.3 Furnace and Boiler;448
11.4.2.4;6.4.2.4 Ash Deposition;450
11.4.2.5;6.4.2.5 Corrosion;451
11.4.3;6.4.3 Pyrolysis and Gasification Systems;452
11.4.3.1;6.4.3.1 Pyrolysis in Rotary Kilns;452
11.4.3.2;6.4.3.2 Gasification with Pure Oxygen and Integrated Melting;453
11.4.3.3;6.4.3.3 Fluidised Bed Gasification;454
11.4.4;6.4.4 Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF);455
11.4.5;6.4.5 Sewage Sludge;457
11.4.6;6.4.6 Steam Boilers;458
11.4.7;6.4.7 Efficiency Increases in EfW Plants;459
11.4.8;6.4.8 Dioxins;468
11.4.9;6.4.9 Flue Gas Cleaning;469
11.5;6.5 Co-combustion in Coal-Fired Power Plants;472
11.5.1;6.5.1 Co-combustion Design Concepts;474
11.5.2;6.5.2 Biomass Preparation and Feeding;476
11.5.3;6.5.3 Co-combustion in Pulverised Fuel Firing;480
11.5.3.1;6.5.3.1 Volumetric and Mass Fuel Flowrates and Flue Gas Flowrate;480
11.5.3.2;6.5.3.2 Combustion Process;483
11.5.3.3;6.5.3.3 Slagging, Fouling, Erosion;483
11.5.3.4;6.5.3.4 Corrosion;485
11.5.3.5;6.5.3.5 Emissions;486
11.5.3.6;6.5.3.6 Effects on Residual Matter;489
11.5.3.7;6.5.3.7 NOx Control Equipment;491
11.5.3.8;6.5.3.8 Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) Equipment;492
11.5.4;6.5.4 Co-combustion in Fluidised Bed Furnaces;492
11.5.4.1;6.5.4.1 Co-combustion of Coal and Straw in an 88MWth CFBC;493
11.5.4.2;6.5.4.2 Co-combustion of Sewage Sludge in a CFBC;495
11.6;References;495
12;7 Coal-Fuelled Combined Cycle Power Plants ;502
12.1;7.1 Natural Gas Fuelled Combined Cycle Processes;502
12.2;7.2 Overview of Combined Processes with Coal Combustion;507
12.2.1;7.2.1 Introduction;507
12.2.2;7.2.2 Hot Gas Purity Requirements;510
12.2.3;7.2.3 Overview of the Hot Gas Cleaning System for Coal Combustion Combined Cycles;513
12.2.4;7.2.4 Effect of Pressure on Combustion;514
12.3;7.3 Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC);516
12.3.1;7.3.1 Overview;516
12.3.2;7.3.2 Hot Gas Cleaning After the Pressurised Fluidised Bed;523
12.3.2.1;7.3.2.1 Cyclone Separators;523
12.3.2.2;7.3.2.2 Electrostatic Precipitators;525
12.3.2.3;7.3.2.3 Filtration Separators;525
12.3.2.4;7.3.2.4 Comparison of Methods and Techniques;529
12.3.3;7.3.3 Pressurised Bubbling Fluidised Bed Combustion(PBFBC);531
12.3.3.1;7.3.3.1 State of Development;531
12.3.3.2;7.3.3.2 Industrial-Scale Configurations;533
12.3.3.3;7.3.3.3 Control;535
12.3.3.4;7.3.3.4 Emissions;536
12.3.3.5;7.3.3.5 Residual Material;537
12.3.3.6;7.3.3.6 Operating Expertise;537
12.3.3.7;7.3.3.7 Comparison of Bubbling Pressurised Fluidised Beds to Conventional Pulverised Coal Firing;540
12.3.4;7.3.4 Pressurised Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion(PCFBC);540
12.3.4.1;7.3.4.1 Bubbling and Circulating Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion: Comparison in a Pilot-Scale Plant;542
12.3.5;7.3.5 Second-Generation Fluidised Bed Firing Systems(Hybrid Process);547
12.3.6;7.3.6 Summary;550
12.4;7.4 Pressurised Pulverised Coal Combustion (PPCC);551
12.4.1;7.4.1 Overview;551
12.4.2;7.4.2 Molten Slag Removal;553
12.4.3;7.4.3 Alkali Release and Capture;556
12.4.3.1;7.4.3.1 Fundamentals;556
12.4.3.2;7.4.3.2 Alkali Emissions from Combustion;564
12.4.3.3;7.4.3.3 Secondary Alkali Removal;568
12.4.4;7.4.4 State of Development;571
12.4.4.1;7.4.4.1 Germany, Pressurised Pulverised Coal Combustion Project;571
12.4.4.2;7.4.4.2 Efficiency Potential and Design of PPCC Furnaces;573
12.4.4.3;7.4.4.3 USA;575
12.4.4.4;7.4.4.4 Westinghouse;575
12.4.4.5;7.4.4.5 Solar Turbines;577
12.4.4.6;7.4.4.6 Allison;578
12.4.5;7.4.5 Summary and Conclusions;578
12.5;7.5 Externally Fired Gas Turbine Processes;579
12.5.1;7.5.1 Structure, Configurations, Efficiency;579
12.5.2;7.5.2 High-Temperature Heat Exchanger;584
12.5.2.1;7.5.2.1 Requirements;584
12.5.2.2;7.5.2.2 Selection of the Material;585
12.5.2.3;7.5.2.3 Classification of Heat Exchangers;589
12.5.3;7.5.3 State of Development;594
12.5.3.1;7.5.3.1 EFCC Processes with Metallic Heat Exchangers;595
12.5.3.2;7.5.3.2 EFCC Processes with Ceramic Heat Exchangers;597
12.5.4;7.5.4 Conclusions;601
12.6;7.6 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC);602
12.6.1;7.6.1 History of Coal Gasification;602
12.6.2;7.6.2 Applications of Gasification Technology;603
12.6.2.1;7.6.2.1 Generation of Secondary Energy Sources;603
12.6.2.2;7.6.2.2 IGCC With and Without CO2 Capture;604
12.6.2.3;7.6.2.3 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of an IGCC;607
12.6.3;7.6.3 Gasification Systems and Chemical Reactions;609
12.6.3.1;7.6.3.1 Allothermal and Autothermal Gasification;609
12.6.3.2;7.6.3.2 Basic Chemical Reactions;611
12.6.3.3;7.6.3.3 Considerations of the Thermodynamic Equilibrium;613
12.6.4;7.6.4 Classification of Coal Gasifiers;618
12.6.4.1;7.6.4.1 Fixed Bed Gasifiers;618
12.6.4.2;7.6.4.2 Fluidised Bed Gasifiers;621
12.6.4.3;7.6.4.3 Entrained-Flow Gasifier;622
12.6.5;7.6.5 Gas Treatment;626
12.6.5.1;7.6.5.1 Impurities in the Gas;628
12.6.5.2;7.6.5.2 Raw Gas Cooling;629
12.6.5.3;7.6.5.3 Particulate Removal;631
12.6.5.4;7.6.5.4 CO Shift;631
12.6.5.5;7.6.5.5 Acid Gas Removal (H2S, COS, CO2);632
12.6.5.6;7.6.5.6 Hot Gas Cleaning;635
12.6.5.7;7.6.5.7 CO2 Separation at High Temperatures;639
12.6.6;7.6.6 Components and Integration;641
12.6.6.1;7.6.6.1 Gas Turbines;641
12.6.6.2;7.6.6.2 Air Separation Unit (ASU);643
12.6.6.3;7.6.6.3 Integration;644
12.6.7;7.6.7 State of the Art and Perspectives;645
12.6.7.1;7.6.7.1 IGCC Plants in Operation;645
12.6.7.2;7.6.7.2 Description of the Puertollano Plant;646
12.6.7.3;7.6.7.3 Process Availability and Costs of IGCC Plants;648
12.6.7.4;7.6.7.4 Efficiency Potential;649
12.6.7.5;7.6.7.5 IGCC Concept Designs with CO2 Removal;650
12.6.7.6;7.6.7.6 Long-Term Perspectives;651
12.7;References;652
13;8 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS);662
13.1;8.1 Potential for Carbon Capture and Storage;662
13.2;8.2 Properties and Transport of CO2;663
13.3;8.3 CO2 Storage;665
13.3.1;8.3.1 Industrial Use;665
13.3.2;8.3.2 Geological Storage;666
13.3.2.1;8.3.2.1 Existing CO2 Storage Projects;667
13.3.2.2;8.3.2.2 Capacity of Storage Sites;667
13.3.2.3;8.3.2.3 Risks and Open Questions;668
13.3.2.4;8.3.2.4 Ocean Storage;668
13.3.2.5;8.3.2.5 Mineral Carbonation;669
13.4;8.4 Overview of Capture Technologies;670
13.4.1;8.4.1 Technology Overview;670
13.4.2;8.4.2 Separation Technologies;672
13.4.2.1;8.4.2.1 Separation with Sorbents or Solvents;672
13.4.2.2;8.4.2.2 Separation with Membranes;673
13.4.2.3;8.4.2.3 Distillation of a Liquefied Gas Stream and Refrigerated Separation;674
13.4.2.4;8.4.2.4 Separation Work;674
13.5;8.5 Post-combustion Technologies;675
13.5.1;8.5.1 Chemical Absorption;675
13.5.1.1;8.5.1.1 Solvents (Amines);677
13.5.1.2;8.5.1.2 Energy Requirements;677
13.5.1.3;8.5.1.3 Flue Gas Pre-treatment;678
13.5.2;8.5.2 Solid Sorbents;679
13.6;8.6 Oxy-fuel Combustion;680
13.6.1;8.6.1 Oxy-fuel Steam Generator Concepts;682
13.6.1.1;8.6.1.1 Flue Gas Recirculation;683
13.6.1.2;8.6.1.2 Water/Steam Spraying;684
13.6.1.3;8.6.1.3 Controlled Fuel/Oxygen Staging with Rich/Lean Burners;684
13.6.2;8.6.2 Impact of Oxy-fuel Combustion;684
13.6.2.1;8.6.2.1 Flue Gas Composition;684
13.6.2.2;8.6.2.2 Thermodynamic Properties;685
13.6.2.3;8.6.2.3 Heat Transfer;686
13.6.2.4;8.6.2.4 Emissions;688
13.6.3;8.6.3 Oxy-fuel Configurations;689
13.6.3.1;8.6.3.1 CO2 Purity;689
13.6.3.2;8.6.3.2 Waste Heat Recovery;691
13.6.3.3;8.6.3.3 Flue Gas Recirculation;691
13.6.4;8.6.4 Chemical-Looping Combustion;692
13.7;8.7 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles with Carbon Capture and Storage;694
13.8;8.8 Comparison of CCS Technologies;696
13.9;References;698
14;Index;701