Uysal / Capsoni / Ghassemlooy Optical Wireless Communications

An Emerging Technology
1. Auflage 2016
ISBN: 978-3-319-30201-0
Verlag: Springer Nature Switzerland
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 639 Seiten

Reihe: Signals and Communication Technology

This book focuses on optical wireless communications (OWC), an emerging technology with huge potential for the provision of pervasive and reliable next-generation communications networks. It shows how the development of novel and efficient wireless technologies can contribute to a range of transmission links essential for the heterogeneous networks of the future to support various communications services and traffic patterns with ever-increasing demands for higher data-transfer rates.The book starts with a chapter reviewing the OWC field, which explains different sub-technologies (visible-light, ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) communications) and introduces the spectrum of application areas (indoor, vehicular, terrestrial, underwater, intersatellite, deep space, etc.). This provides readers with the necessary background information to understand the specialist material in the main body of the book, which is in four parts.The first of these deals with propagation modelling and channel characterization of OWC channels at different spectral bands and with different applications. The second starts by providing a unified information-theoretic treatment of OWC and then discusses advanced physical-layer methodologies (including, but not limited to: advanced coding, modulation diversity, cooperation and multi-carrier techniques) and the ultimate limitations imposed by practical constraints. On top of the physical layer come the upper-layer protocols and cross-layer designs that are the subject of the third part of the book. The last part of the book features a chapter-by-chapter assessment of selected OWC applications.Optical Wireless Communications is a valuable reference guide for academic researchers and practitioners concerned with the future development of the world's communication networks. It succinctly but comprehensively presents the latest advances in the field.

Murat Uysal received the B.Sc. and the M.Sc. degree in electronics and communication engineering from Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey, in 1995 and 1998, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, in 2001. Dr. Uysal is currently a Full Professor and Chair of the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering at Ozyegin University, Istanbul, Turkey. Prior to joining Ozyegin University, he was a tenured Associate Professor at the University of Waterloo (Canada) where he still holds an adjunct faculty position. Prof. Uysal's research interests are in the broad areas of communication theory and signal processing with a particular emphasis on the physical layer aspects of wireless communication systems in radio and optical frequency bands. He has authored more than 220 journal and conference papers on these topics and received more than 3800 citations. Prof. Uysal currently serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Transactions on Communications, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, Wiley Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing (WCMC) Journal, and Wiley Transactions on Emerging Telecommunications Technologies (ETT). In the past, he served as an Editor for IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications (2003-2011), IEEE Communications Letters (2004-2012), Guest Co-Editor for WCMC Special Issue on MIMO Communications (October 2004) and IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications Special Issues on Optical Wireless Communications (December 2009 and June 2015). Prof. Uysal is the Chair of the EU COST Action OPTICWISE which is a high-profile consolidated European scientific network for interdisciplinary research activities in the area of optical wireless communications.Carlo Capsoni graduated in Electronic Engineering at the Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy, in 1970 and in the same year joined the 'Centro di Studi per le Telecomunicazioni Spaziali' (CSTS), research centre of the Italian National Research Council (CNR), Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy. In this position, he was in charge of the installation of the meteorological radar of the CNR sited at Spino d'Adda, Italy, and since then, he has been the scientific responsible for radar activity. In 1979, he was actively involved in the satellite Sirio SHF propagation experiment (11-18 GHz) and later in the Olympus (12, 20, and 30 GHz) and Italsat (20, 40, and 50 GHz) satellite experiments. His scientific activity mainly focuses on theoretical and experimental aspects of electromagnetic-wave propagation at centimetre and millimetre wavelengths in the presence of atmospheric precipitation with a particular emphasis on attenuation, wave depolarization, incoherent radiation, interference due to hydrometeor scatter, precipitation-fade countermeasures, modelling of the radio channel, and the design of advanced satellite-communication systems. He is also active in free-space optics theoretical and experimental activities. Since 1975, he has been teaching a course on aviation electronics at the Politecnico di Milano, where he became Full Professor of Electromagnetics in 1986. Prof. Capsoni was a member of the ITU national group and was the Italian delegate in COST projects of the European Economic Community related to propagation aspects of telecommunications (COST 205, 210).He is a member of the Italian Society of Electromagnetics (SIEm) and editor of the SIEm Magazine. He is also a member of the Coritel governing body. Prof. Capsoni currently serves as the Chair of OPTICWISE Working Group on 'Propagation Modelling and Channel Characterization'.Zabih Ghassemlooy received his BSc (Hons) from the Manchester Metropolitan University in 1981, and MSc and PhD from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), in 1984 and 1987, respectively. During 1986-87, he worked in UMIST and from 1987 to 1988 he was a Post-doctoral Research Fellow at the City University, London. In 1988, he joined Sheffield Hallam University as a Lecturer, becoming a Professor in Optical Communications in 1997. During 2004-2012, he was an Associate Dean for Research in the School of Computing, Engineering and from 2012-2014 Associate Dean for Research and Innovation in the Faculty of Engineering and Environment, Northumbria University at Newcastle, UK. He currently heads the Northumbria Communications Research Laboratories within the Faculty. He has been a visiting professor at a number of institutions and currently is at University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. He is the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Optics and Applications, and British Journal of Applied Science Technology. His researches interests are on optical wireless communications, visible light communications and radio over fibre/free-space optics. He has over 48 PhD students and published over 550 papers (195 in journals + 4 books) and presented over 65 keynote and invited talks. He is a co-author of a CRC book on 'Optical Wireless Communications - Systems and Channel Modelling with MATLAB®(2012); a co-editor of an IET book on 'Analogue Optical Fibre Communications'. From 2004-06 he was the IEEE UK/IR Communications Chapter Secretary, the Vice-Chairman (2004-2008), the Chairman (2008-2011), and Chairman of the IET Northumbria Network (Oct 2011-..) Prof. Ghassemlooy is the Vice Chair of the EU COST Action OPTICWISE and also serves as the Chair of OPTICWISE Working Group on 'Physical Layer Algorithm Design and Verification'.Anthony C. Boucouvalas is a Professor in Communications Networks and Applications at the University of Peloponnese in Tripoli, Greece. Prof. Boucouvalas has been actively involved with research in various aspects of fibre optic communications, wireless communications and multimedia and has an accumulated 35 years experience in well known academic and industrial research centres. He graduated with a B.Sc. in Electrical and Electronic Engineering from Newcastle upon Tyne University in 1978. He received his MSc and D.I.C. degrees in Communications Engineering, in 1979, from Imperial College, where he also received his PhD degree in Fibre Optics in 1982. Subsequently he joined GEC Hirst Research Centre, and became Group Leader and Divisional Chief Scientist working on fibre optic components, measurements and sensors, until 1987, when he joined Hewlett Packard Laboratories as Project Manager. At HP he worked in the areas of optical communication systems, optical networks, and instrumentation, until 1994, when he joined Bournemouth University. In 1996, he became a Professor in Multimedia Communications and in 1999 the Director of the Microelectronics and Multimedia research Centre at Bournemouth University. In 2007, he joined the Department of Telecommunication Science at the University of Peloponnese where he served for 6 years as Head of Department. His current research interests lie in optical wireless communications, fibre optic communications, inverse fibre optic problems, network protocols, and human-computer interfaces and Internet Applications. He has published over 300 scientific papers. He is a Fellow of IET, a Fellow of IEEE, (FIEEE), and a Fellow of the Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce. Prof. Boucouvalas currently serves as the Chair of OPTICWISE Working Group on 'Networking Protocols'.Eszter UdvaryReceived Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME), Budapest, Hungary, in 2009. She is currently an associate professor at BME, Department of Broadband Infocommunications and Electromagnetic Theory, where she leads the Optical and Microwave Telecommunication Lab. She currently teaches courses on optical communication devices and networks. Dr. Udvary's research interests are in the broad areas of optical communications, include optical and microwave communication systems, radio over fibre systems, optical and microwave interactions and applications of special electro-optical devices. Her special research focuses on multifunctional semiconductor optical amplifier application techniques. She is deeply involved in visible light communication, indoor optical wireless communication and microwave photonics techniques. Dr. Udvary has authored more than 80 journal and conference papers, and one book chapter. She currently serves as the Chair of OPTICWISE Working Group on 'Advanced Photonic Components'.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Uysal, Murat

Capsoni, Carlo

Ghassemlooy, Zabih

Boucouvalas, Anthony

Udvary, Eszter

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Contents;9
3;1 An Overview of Optical Wireless Communications;21
3.1;Abstract;21
3.2;1.1 Introduction;22
3.3;1.2 Historical Overview and Current Status;25
3.4;1.3 Existing and Envisioned Application Areas;27
3.4.1;1.3.1 Ultra Short Range OWC Applications;29
3.4.2;1.3.2 Short Range OWC Applications;30
3.4.3;1.3.3 Medium Range OWC Applications;32
3.4.4;1.3.4 Long Range OWC Applications;34
3.4.5;1.3.5 Ultra Long Range OWC Applications;37
3.5;1.4 Conclusions;39
3.6;References;39
4;2 Optical Propagation in Unguided Media;44
4.1;Abstract;44
4.2;2.1 Introduction;44
4.3;2.2 Degrading Effects of Turbulence;45
4.4;2.3 Power Spectra of Turbulence in Free Space Optics (FSO), Slant Satellite and Underwater Links;46
4.5;2.4 Rytov Method;48
4.6;2.5 Extended Huygens–Fresnel Principle;51
4.7;2.6 Average Received Intensity;52
4.8;2.7 Intensity and Power Scintillation Index;52
4.9;2.8 Bit Error Rate;55
4.10;2.9 Beam Effects in Turbulent Medium;56
4.11;2.10 Mitigation Methods to Reduce Turbulence Effects;60
4.12;2.11 Sample Results;61
4.13;2.12 Conclusions and Future Directions;62
4.14;References;62
5;3 Effects of Adverse Weather on Free Space Optics;65
5.1;Abstract;65
5.2;3.1 Introduction;65
5.3;3.2 Gas Absorption;67
5.4;3.3 Propagation Through Atmospheric Particulates;67
5.4.1;3.3.1 Refractive Index of Water;69
5.4.2;3.3.2 Electromagnetic Computation: Mie Theory;69
5.4.3;3.3.3 Asymptotic Theories;70
5.5;3.4 Multiple Scattering Effects;71
5.6;3.5 Fog and Clouds;73
5.6.1;3.5.1 Fog Types;73
5.6.2;3.5.2 Cloud Types;74
5.6.3;3.5.3 Microphysical Characterization;75
5.6.4;3.5.4 Specific Attenuation;75
5.7;3.6 Rain;80
5.7.1;3.6.1 Microphysical Characterization;80
5.7.2;3.6.2 Specific Attenuation;81
5.8;3.7 Snow;82
5.8.1;3.7.1 Microphysical Characterization;82
5.8.2;3.7.2 Specific Attenuation;83
5.9;3.8 Conclusions and Recommendations;84
5.10;References;84
6;4 Experimental Validation of FSO Channel Models;87
6.1;Abstract;87
6.2;4.1 Introduction;87
6.3;4.2 Total Attenuation;90
6.4;4.3 Measurement of Fog Attenuation;91
6.5;4.4 Modeling of DSD in Fog and Clouds;94
6.5.1;4.4.1 Experimental Data;95
6.5.2;4.4.2 Analysis of LWC and PSA;97
6.6;4.5 Rain Attenuation;98
6.7;4.6 Impact of Atmospheric Turbulences;100
6.8;4.7 Conclusion;101
6.9;References;102
7;5 Channel Characterization and Modeling for LEO-Ground Links;105
7.1;Abstract;105
7.2;5.1 Introduction;105
7.3;5.2 Atmospheric Turbulence;108
7.3.1;5.2.1 Scintillation;109
7.3.2;5.2.2 Fading Statistics;112
7.4;5.3 Measurements;114
7.4.1;5.3.1 KIODO Campaign;114
7.4.2;5.3.2 Instrument;115
7.4.3;5.3.3 Results;117
7.4.3.1;5.3.3.1 Power Scintillation;117
7.4.3.2;5.3.3.2 Signal Fading;117
7.5;5.4 Modeling Approach of Power Scintillation;118
7.6;5.5 Conclusions and Future Directions;121
7.7;References;121
8;6 Channel Modeling for Visible Light Communications;124
8.1;Abstract;124
8.2;6.1 Introduction;124
8.3;6.2 Channel Modeling Approach;126
8.4;6.3 CIR for an Empty Room;128
8.5;6.4 Effect of Surface Materials, Objects, and Transmitter/Receiver Specifications on CIR;133
8.6;6.5 Conclusion;138
8.7;Acknowledgments;138
8.8;References;138
9;7 Diffraction Effects and Optical Beam Shaping in FSO Terminals;140
9.1;Abstract;140
9.2;7.1 Introduction;141
9.3;7.2 Wave Effects in OWC;141
9.4;7.3 Modeling of Diffraction Effects in Terrestrial FSO Links;142
9.5;7.4 Simulation, Assessment, and Discussion;146
9.6;7.5 Geometrical and Pointing Loss;148
9.7;7.6 Optical Beam Shaping;150
9.8;7.7 FG Beams and Transformation Techniques;151
9.9;7.8 FG Beam Propagation, Scintillation and Averaging Effect;152
9.10;7.9 Conclusions and Future Directions;158
9.11;References;158
10;8 Ultraviolet Scattering Communication Channels;161
10.1;Abstract;161
10.2;8.1 Introduction;162
10.3;8.2 Historical and Technological Perspectives;163
10.4;8.3 Ultraviolet Channel Propagation Effects;164
10.4.1;8.3.1 Non-Line-of-Sight Channel Geometry;164
10.4.2;8.3.2 Tropospheric Ultraviolet Absorption and Scattering;165
10.4.3;8.3.3 Tropospheric Turbulence and Ultraviolet Scintillation;170
10.5;8.4 Ultraviolet Scattering Channel Models;170
10.5.1;8.4.1 Radiative Transfer in Turbid Media;172
10.5.2;8.4.2 Single-Scattering Impulse Response and Path Loss Models;173
10.5.3;8.4.3 Multiple Scattering Numerical and Approximate Models;176
10.5.4;8.4.4 Turbulence Effects on Ultraviolet Propagation;179
10.6;8.5 Ultraviolet Experimental Results and System Analysis;180
10.6.1;8.5.1 NLOS-UV Measurements and Model Inter-comparisons;180
10.6.2;8.5.2 NLOS-UV System Performance Analysis;181
10.7;8.6 Conclusions and Future Directions;183
10.8;References;183
11;9 Information Theoretical Limits of Free-Space Optical Links;187
11.1;Abstract;187
11.2;9.1 Introduction;189
11.2.1;9.1.1 General Background;189
11.2.1.1;9.1.1.1 Free-Space Optics (FSO);189
11.2.2;9.1.2 Motivation;191
11.2.3;9.1.3 Objectives and Contributions;192
11.2.4;9.1.4 Structure;193
11.3;9.2 System and Channel Models;193
11.3.1;9.2.1 Atmospheric Turbulences;193
11.3.1.1;9.2.1.1 Gamma (G) Turbulence Scenario;194
11.3.1.2;9.2.1.2 Lognormal (LN) Turbulence Scenario;195
11.3.1.3;9.2.1.3 Rician–Lognormal (RLN) Turbulence Scenario;195
11.3.1.4;9.2.1.4 Gamma–Gamma (\Gamma \Gamma) Turbulence Scenario;196
11.3.1.5;9.2.1.5 Málaga ({{\cal M}}) Turbulence Scenario;196
11.3.1.6;9.2.1.6 Double Generalized Gamma (DGG) Turbulence Scenario;197
11.3.2;9.2.2 Pointing Errors;198
11.3.2.1;9.2.2.1 General Beckmann Pointing Error Model;199
11.3.2.2;9.2.2.2 Special Cases;201
11.3.3;9.2.3 Closed-Form Statistical Probability Density Functions (PDF);204
11.3.3.1;9.2.3.1 Gamma (G) Turbulence Scenario;204
11.3.3.2;9.2.3.2 Lognormal (LN) Turbulence Scenario;205
11.3.3.3;9.2.3.3 Rician–Lognormal (RLN) Turbulence Scenario;205
11.3.3.4;9.2.3.4 Málaga ({{\cal M}}) and Gamma–Gamma ({\Gamma \Gamma }) Turbulence Scenarios;206
11.3.3.5;9.2.3.5 Double Generalized Gamma (DGG) Turbulence Scenario;207
11.3.4;9.2.4 Important Outcomes and Further Motivations;207
11.4;9.3 Exact Analysis;208
11.4.1;9.3.1 Gamma (G) Atmospheric Turbulence;208
11.4.2;9.3.2 Málaga ({{\cal M}}) and Gamma–Gamma ({\Gamma \Gamma }) Atmospheric Turbulences;208
11.4.3;9.3.3 Double Generalized Gamma (DGG) Atmospheric Turbulence;209
11.4.4;9.3.4 Results and Discussion;210
11.4.4.1;9.3.4.1 Málaga ({{\cal M}}) Atmospheric Turbulence;210
11.4.4.2;9.3.4.2 Double Generalized Gamma (DGG) Atmospheric Turbulence;210
11.5;9.4 Asymptotic Analysis;211
11.5.1;9.4.1 Rician–Lognormal (RLN) Atmospheric Turbulence with Boresight Pointing Errors;213
11.5.1.1;9.4.1.1 Moments-Based Ergodic Capcity Analysis;213
11.5.1.2;9.4.1.2 Results and Discussion;215
11.5.2;9.4.2 Gamma–Gamma ({\Gamma \Gamma }) Atmospheric Turbulence with Beckmann Pointing Errors;217
11.5.2.1;9.4.2.1 Moments-Based Ergodic Capcity Analysis;217
11.5.2.2;9.4.2.2 Results and Discussion;218
11.6;9.5 Conclusions and Future Directions;220
11.7;References;220
12;10 Performance Analysis of FSO Communications Under Correlated Fading Conditions;225
12.1;Abstract;225
12.2;10.1 Introduction;226
12.3;10.2 Channel Modeling for FSO Communications;226
12.3.1;10.2.1 Turbulence Modeling for a SISO FSO System;226
12.3.2;10.2.2 Channel Modeling for Space-Diversity FSO Systems;227
12.4;10.3 Evaluating Fading Correlation in Space-Diversity FSO Channels;227
12.4.1;10.3.1 Study of Fading Correlation for SIMO Case;228
12.4.1.1;10.3.1.1 Effect of the Refractive Index Structure Parameter;229
12.4.1.2;10.3.1.2 Case of Fixed Aperture Diameter;230
12.4.1.3;10.3.1.3 Case of Fixed Link Distance;230
12.4.2;10.3.2 Fading Correlation in MISO and MIMO Cases;234
12.4.2.1;10.3.2.1 Fading Correlation in MISO Systems;234
12.4.2.2;10.3.2.2 General Model for MIMO Systems;234
12.5;10.4 Performance Evaluation Over Correlated \Gamma \Gamma Channels via Monte-Carlo Simulations;235
12.5.1;10.4.1 Generation of Correlated \Gamma \Gamma RVs;236
12.5.2;10.4.2 Study of BER Performance by Monte-Carlo Simulations;237
12.5.2.1;10.4.2.1 Signal Detection Formulation;237
12.5.2.2;10.4.2.2 Effect of Fading Correlation on BER;238
12.6;10.5 Analytical Performance Evaluation of FSO Over Correlated Channels;239
12.6.1;10.5.1 \alpha { - }\mu Approximation to the Sum of Multiple \Gamma \Gamma RVs;240
12.6.2;10.5.2 BER Analysis Based on \alpha { - }\mu Approximation;241
12.6.3;10.5.3 Numerical Results;241
12.7;10.6 Conclusions;243
12.8;References;243
13;11 MIMO Free-Space Optical Communication;246
13.1;Abstract;246
13.2;11.1 Introduction;246
13.3;11.2 Channel Modelling;248
13.3.1;11.2.1 Turbulence Statistics;251
13.3.2;11.2.2 FSO Links with Misalignment;252
13.4;11.3 MIMO FSO Diversity Techniques;253
13.4.1;11.3.1 Receive Diversity;253
13.4.2;11.3.2 Transmit Diversity;254
13.5;11.4 Performance of MIMO FSO Systems;256
13.5.1;11.4.1 Average Error Rate;257
13.5.2;11.4.2 Outage Probability;258
13.5.3;11.4.3 Diversity Gain;260
13.5.4;11.4.4 Aperture Averaging, Correlation, and Near-Field Effects;262
13.6;11.5 Distributed MIMO FSO;263
13.7;11.6 Conclusions and Future Directions;265
13.8;References;266
14;12 OFDM-Based Visible Light Communications;269
14.1;Abstract;269
14.2;12.1 Introduction;270
14.3;12.2 Unipolar OFDM (U-OFDM);272
14.3.1;12.2.1 Concept;272
14.3.2;12.2.2 Theoretical Bit Error Rate Analysis;277
14.3.3;12.2.3 Results and Discussion;284
14.4;12.3 Enhanced Unipolar Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (U-OFDM);287
14.4.1;12.3.1 Concept;287
14.4.2;12.3.2 Spectral Efficiency;289
14.4.3;12.3.3 Theoretical Bit Error Rate Analysis;290
14.4.3.1;12.3.3.1 Electrical Power;290
14.4.3.2;12.3.3.2 Optical Power;293
14.4.4;12.3.4 Results and Discussion;295
14.5;12.4 Superposition Modulation for Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM);298
14.5.1;12.4.1 Generalised Enhanced Unipolar Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (U-OFDM);299
14.5.1.1;12.4.1.1 Concept;299
14.5.1.2;12.4.1.2 Spectral Efficiency;299
14.5.1.3;12.4.1.3 Theoretical Bit Error Rate Analysis;300
14.5.2;12.4.2 Enhanced Asymmetrically-Clipped Optical OFDM (ACO-OFDM);302
14.5.3;12.4.3 Enhanced Pulse-Amplitude-Modulated Discrete Multitone Modulation (PAM-DMT);303
14.5.3.1;12.4.3.1 Concept;303
14.5.3.2;12.4.3.2 Spectral Efficiency;305
14.5.3.3;12.4.3.3 Theoretical Bit Error Rate Analysis;307
14.5.4;12.4.4 Results and Discussion;308
14.6;12.5 Conclusions and Future Directions;310
14.7;Acknowledgments;311
14.8;References;311
15;13 Block Transmission with Frequency Domain Equalization for VLC;313
15.1;Abstract;313
15.2;13.1 Introduction;313
15.3;13.2 Basic Modeling Aspects;315
15.3.1;13.2.1 Intensity Modulation and Direct Detection;315
15.3.2;13.2.2 NRZ-OOK Reference and Optical Power Penalty;316
15.3.3;13.2.3 Power Penalty of PAM in a Flat AWGN Channel;317
15.3.4;13.2.4 Discrete Time PAM Transmission Model;319
15.4;13.3 PAM Block Transmission with Cyclic Prefix;320
15.4.1;13.3.1 An Example Illustrating the Cyclic Convolution;320
15.4.2;13.3.2 A High Level Channel Model in Matrix-Vector Notation;321
15.4.3;13.3.3 Equalizer Coefficients;322
15.4.3.1;13.3.3.1 Symbol Spaced Zero Forcing Equalization;322
15.4.3.2;13.3.3.2 Fractionally Spaced Zero Forcing Equalization;323
15.4.3.3;13.3.3.3 Symbol Spaced MMSE Equalization;323
15.4.3.4;13.3.3.4 Fractionally Spaced MMSE Equalization;325
15.4.4;13.3.4 Impact of a Fixed Timing Error;325
15.5;13.4 How to Obtain DC-Balance;326
15.5.1;13.4.1 Line Coding;326
15.5.2;13.4.2 DC-Biased SSC-QAM and Similar Schemes;327
15.5.3;13.4.3 DC-Biased DMT;329
15.6;13.5 VLC Channel;330
15.7;13.6 Results;333
15.7.1;13.6.1 Performance in Gaussian Lowpass Channels;333
15.7.2;13.6.2 Performance in Multipath Channels;334
15.8;13.7 Conclusions;336
15.9;References;336
16;14 Satellite Downlink Coherent Laser Communications;338
16.1;Abstract;338
16.2;14.1 Introduction;338
16.3;14.2 Adaptive Coherent Receivers;340
16.4;14.3 Performance of Coherent Laser Downlinks;345
16.5;14.4 Outage Capacity of Laser Downlinks;350
16.6;14.5 Conclusions;353
16.7;Acknowledgments;354
16.8;References;354
17;15 Cooperative Visible Light Communications;357
17.1;Abstract;357
17.2;15.1 Introduction;357
17.3;15.2 Indoor Environment with Illumination Constraints;359
17.4;15.3 VLC Indoor Channel Model;361
17.5;15.4 System Model;363
17.5.1;15.4.1 Non-cooperative (Direct) Transmission;363
17.5.2;15.4.2 AF Cooperative Transmission;364
17.5.3;15.4.3 DF Cooperative Transmission;366
17.5.4;15.4.4 Cooperative Transmission with Imperfect CSI;368
17.6;15.5 Numerical Results;369
17.7;15.6 Conclusion and Future Directions;373
17.8;Acknowledgments;373
17.9;References;373
18;16 Coded Orbital Angular Momentum Modulation and Multiplexing Enabling Ultra-High-Speed Free-Space Optical Transmission;375
18.1;Abstract;375
18.2;16.1 Introduction;376
18.3;16.2 OAM Modulation and Multiplexing Principles;377
18.4;16.3 Signal Constellation Design for OAM Modulation and Multidimensional Signaling Based on OAM;380
18.5;16.4 Experimental Study of Coded OAM in the Presence of Atmospheric Turbulence;384
18.6;16.5 Adaptive Coding for FSO Communications and Corresponding FPGA Implementation;390
18.7;16.6 Conclusion and Future Work;394
18.8;Acknowledgments;394
18.9;References;394
19;17 Mixed RF/FSO Relaying Systems;398
19.1;Abstract;398
19.2;17.1 Introduction;398
19.3;17.2 System and Channel Model;401
19.3.1;17.2.1 RF Channel Model;403
19.3.2;17.2.2 FSO Channel Model;405
19.4;17.3 Outage Probability Analysis;406
19.4.1;17.3.1 Negligible Pointing Errors;409
19.4.2;17.3.2 System with a Single Relay;409
19.5;17.4 Numerical Results;410
19.6;17.5 Conclusions and Future Directions;414
19.7;References;415
20;18 Dimming and Modulation for VLC-Enabled Lighting;419
20.1;Abstract;419
20.2;18.1 Introduction;420
20.3;18.2 Digital Modulation with Dimming Concepts;421
20.4;18.3 Digital Techniques;422
20.4.1;18.3.1 Data/Dimming Control Modulator;424
20.5;18.4 Circuit Architecture;425
20.5.1;18.4.1 Buck Converter Design;426
20.5.2;18.4.2 Data-Dimming Multiplication Method;429
20.5.3;18.4.3 Measurement Results of Digital Modulation with Dimming;430
20.6;18.5 Analog Techniques;434
20.7;18.6 Conclusions and Future Directions;439
20.8;References;439
21;19 Diversity for Mitigating Channel Effects;441
21.1;Abstract;441
21.2;19.1 Introduction;442
21.3;19.2 Receiver Diversity in Log-Normal Atmospheric Channels;442
21.3.1;19.2.1 Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC);444
21.3.2;19.2.2 Equal Gain Combining (EGC);446
21.3.3;19.2.3 Selection Combining (SelC);448
21.4;19.3 Transmitter Diversity in Log-Normal Atmospheric Channels;449
21.5;19.4 Transmitter-Receiver Diversity in a Log-Normal Atmospheric Channel;450
21.6;19.5 Results and Discussions of SIM-FSO with Spatial Diversity in a Log-Normal Atmospheric Channel;451
21.7;19.6 Experimental Set-up;454
21.8;19.7 Outdoor Measurements of Diversity Links;457
21.9;19.8 Conclusions;460
21.10;References;460
22;20 Multiple Access in Visible Light Communication Networks;461
22.1;Abstract;461
22.2;20.1 Introduction;462
22.3;20.2 Overview of PHY and MAC Layer Design for VLC;463
22.4;20.3 IEEE 802.15.7 Channel Access Mechanisms;465
22.5;20.4 Markov-Based Random Access Models for 802.15.7;466
22.6;20.5 Performance Evaluation for 802.15.7 MAC;468
22.7;20.6 Conclusion and Future Directions;470
22.8;Acknowledgments;470
22.9;References;470
23;21 Link Layer Protocols for Short-Range IR Communications;472
23.1;Abstract;472
23.2;21.1 Introduction;472
23.3;21.2 Irda Protocol Stack;474
23.3.1;21.2.1 Physical Layer (PHY);474
23.3.2;21.2.2 Link Access Protocol (IrLAP);477
23.3.3;21.2.3 Link Management Protocol (IrLMP);480
23.3.4;21.2.4 Tiny Transport Protocol (TTP);480
23.3.5;21.2.5 Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX);481
23.4;21.3 IrLAP Functional Model Description;481
23.5;21.4 IrLAP MATHEMATICAL MODEL;484
23.6;21.5 IrLAP THROUGHPUT ANALYSIS;488
23.7;21.6 Conclusions;491
23.8;References;491
24;22 On the Resilient Network Design of Free-Space Optical Wireless Network for Cellular Backhauling;493
24.1;Abstract;493
24.2;22.1 Introduction;494
24.3;22.2 A Review of Related Works;496
24.4;22.3 Notations and Problem Definitions;497
24.5;22.4 Problem Formulation: A Two-Layer Model;499
24.6;22.5 A Path Generation-Based Heuristic Method;504
24.6.1;22.5.1 A New Formulation Based on Paths;504
24.6.2;22.5.2 Path Generation;505
24.6.3;22.5.3 Framework of the Solution Approach;508
24.7;22.6 Experimental Results;510
24.7.1;22.6.1 Channel Model;510
24.7.2;22.6.2 The Study of a Deployment Scenario;511
24.7.3;22.6.3 Algorithm Comparisons;513
24.8;22.7 Conclusions and Future Directions;516
24.9;Acknowledgments;516
24.10;References;516
25;23 FSO for High Capacity Optical Metro and Access Networks;519
25.1;23.1 Introduction;519
25.2;23.2 Terabit/s OWC for Next Generation Convergent Urban Infrastructures;520
25.3;23.3 Advanced Modulation Formats and Pulse Shaping;525
25.4;23.4 High Data Rate Links with FSO;527
25.5;23.5 Multi System Next Generation and Fully Bidirectional Optical Wireless Access;529
25.6;23.6 Concluding Remarks;531
25.7;References;531
26;24 Multiuser Diversity Scheduling: A New Perspective on the Future Development of FSO Communications;535
26.1;Abstract;535
26.2;24.1 Introduction;535
26.3;24.2 System Model and Assumptions;537
26.4;24.3 Multiuser Diversity in FSO Systems;540
26.4.1;24.3.1 Selective Multiuser Diversity Scheduling;542
26.4.2;24.3.2 Proportional Fair Scheduling;546
26.4.3;24.3.3 Proportional Fair Scheduling with Exponential Rule;547
26.4.4;24.3.4 SMDS/ER Policy;548
26.4.5;24.3.5 SMDS with Earlier Delay First Policy;549
26.5;24.4 Numerical Results;549
26.6;24.5 Conclusions and Future Directions;551
26.7;References;551
27;25 Optical Camera Communications;554
27.1;Abstract;554
27.2;25.1 Introduction;554
27.3;25.2 OCC Concept;556
27.3.1;25.2.1 Transmitters;557
27.3.2;25.2.2 Receivers;559
27.4;25.3 Imaging MIMO;561
27.5;25.4 Modulation Schemes;563
27.5.1;25.4.1 OOK;563
27.5.2;25.4.2 Undersampled-Based Modulation;564
27.5.3;25.4.3 Rolling Shutter Effect-Based Modulation;567
27.5.4;25.4.4 LCD-Based Modulation;568
27.6;25.5 Application of OCC;569
27.6.1;25.5.1 Indoor Positioning;569
27.6.2;25.5.2 Vehicle-to-Vehicle and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Communication;571
27.6.3;25.5.3 Other Applications;572
27.7;25.6 Conclusions;572
27.8;References;572
28;26 Optical Wireless Body Area Networks for Healthcare Applications;576
28.1;Abstract;576
28.2;26.1 Introduction;576
28.3;26.2 Optical On-Body Channel Modeling;579
28.3.1;26.2.1 System Description;580
28.3.2;26.2.2 Channel Gain Distribution;581
28.4;26.3 Optical WBAN Performance;583
28.4.1;26.3.1 Optical CDMA-WBAN Error Probability;584
28.4.2;26.3.2 Validation;587
28.5;26.4 Typical Optical CDMA-WBAN Scenario Analysis;588
28.5.1;26.4.1 Optical WBAN Configuration;588
28.5.2;26.4.2 Channel and Performance Analysis;590
28.6;26.5 Conclusions;592
28.7;References;593
29;27 Free-Space Quantum Key Distribution;595
29.1;Abstract;595
29.2;27.1 Introduction;595
29.3;27.2 Quantum Key Distribution Protocols;596
29.3.1;27.2.1 BB84 Protocol;596
29.3.2;27.2.2 B92 Protocol;598
29.4;27.3 Free-Space as the ‘Quantum’ Channel;599
29.4.1;27.3.1 Transmission Through the Atmosphere;599
29.4.2;27.3.2 Scattering, Absorption, and Weather Dependence;600
29.4.2.1;27.3.2.1 Scattering;600
29.4.2.2;27.3.2.2 Absorption;601
29.4.2.3;27.3.2.3 Weather Dependence;602
29.4.3;27.3.3 Atmospheric Turbulence;603
29.5;27.4 Design of the Transmitter: Alice;604
29.5.1;27.4.1 Choice of Wavelength and Source for the Transmitter;605
29.5.2;27.4.2 Optical Configuration of the Transmitter;605
29.5.3;27.4.3 Temporal Synchronization;608
29.6;27.5 Design of the Receiver: Bob;608
29.6.1;27.5.1 Optical Setup of the Receiver;608
29.6.2;27.5.2 Single-Photon Detection;610
29.7;27.6 Results of the QKD System;611
29.7.1;27.6.1 300-m Link Experiment;611
29.8;References;612
30;28 VLC-Based Indoor Localization;614
30.1;Abstract;614
30.2;28.1 Introduction;614
30.3;28.2 Location Determining Methods;615
30.3.1;28.2.1 Proximity Detection;615
30.3.2;28.2.2 Triangulation;616
30.3.3;28.2.3 Trilateration;617
30.3.4;28.2.4 Location Patterning/Pattern Recognition;618
30.4;28.3 Accessing the Shared VLC Channel;619
30.4.1;28.3.1 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA);619
30.4.2;28.3.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA);619
30.4.3;28.3.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA);620
30.5;28.4 Experimental VLC Localization Systems;621
30.5.1;28.4.1 First VLC Positioning Systems Based on CoO Method;622
30.5.2;28.4.2 CoO Method Extended with RSSI Measurements;623
30.5.3;28.4.3 Radiation Model of the LED Light Source;623
30.5.4;28.4.4 VLC Positioning Based on Landmarks;624
30.5.5;28.4.5 VLC Positioning Systems with Advanced Transmitters and Receivers;625
30.6;28.5 Conclusions and Future Directions;625
30.6.1;28.5.1 Recent Research on VLC Localization Systems;625
30.6.2;28.5.2 Commercialization of VLC Localization Systems;626
30.7;References;626
31;Index;628