Velde / Barré Soils, Plants and Clay Minerals

Mineral and Biologic Interactions
1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-3-642-03499-2
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 349 Seiten

This book represents a rather complicated history of encounters, changes in research interest and some very interesting results. Initially it is the very fruitful interaction of Ecology and Geology. The point of view of ecologists is extremely refreshing for hard science people. Interaction and inter-relationships are the focus of Ecology whereas the traditional sciences, such as Geology, have tried to isolate the natural phenomena so that thye could be studied in a more rigorous manner. The traditional sciences were of course natural science - based since the world to be observed was at the door step of everyone, mountains, weather patterns, plants and so forth. Chemistry and Physics were de ned after Mathematics in order to establish more precise and viable principles of the behavior of the materials that formed the world around mankind. It became quite clear that the observation of the natural world was too complicated to consider all of the possible variables which could affect an observed process or situation. The systems were simpli ed and taken into the laboratory in order to better master the phenomena observed. Physics c- cerned itself with non-reacting materials, subjected to essentially mechanical forces.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Velde, Pierre

Barré, Pierre

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;4
2;Contents;6
3;1 Introduction: Objectives and Background;10
3.1;1.1 The Need to Understand the Plant Earth Interface in the Future World of Pollution, Increased Exploitation of Natural Resources and the Quest of a Bio-Friendly Society;10
3.2;1.2 Understanding How and Where the Plants We Know Today Occur and Interact with the Mineral World: The Setting that we Live in Today and its History;13
3.2.1;1.2.1 Configuration of the Surface Environment of the Earth: Mountains and Climate;14
3.2.2;1.2.2 Vegetation and Climate Today and Yesterday;18
3.2.3;1.2.3 Present Day Context of Plant Biomes;19
3.2.4;1.2.4 Local Variations in the Chemical Context (Geology) and Climatic Variables of Plant -- Soil Interaction;22
3.2.4.1;1.2.4.1 Geology;22
3.2.4.2;1.2.4.2 Topography;25
3.2.5;1.2.5 Summary;27
3.3;1.3 An Unorthodox but Operational Definition Mineral Types and Functions for Phyllosilicate Clay Minerals;27
3.3.1;1.3.1 Network Structures;28
3.3.2;1.3.2 Substitutions and Layer Charge;31
3.3.3;1.3.3 Interlayer Ion Occupancy;32
3.3.4;1.3.4 Identification of Phyllosilicate Clay Types;33
3.3.4.1;1.3.4.1 The 1:1 Minerals (TO);33
3.3.4.2;1.3.4.2 The 2:1 Minerals (TOT);33
3.3.5;1.3.5 Classification of 2:1 Minerals;36
3.3.6;1.3.6 Identification of Smectites and Illites;37
3.3.7;1.3.7 Mixed Layer Illite/Smectite Crystals;37
3.3.8;1.3.8 Identification of Soil HI Minerals (''Vermiculite'');40
3.3.9;1.3.9 Potassium Saturation and Identification of 2:1 Clay Types;40
3.3.9.1;1.3.9.1 Smectites;40
3.3.9.2;1.3.9.2 HI minerals;42
3.3.10;1.3.10 Summary;43
3.4;1.4 Recommendations;44
3.5;1.5 K Saturation (1M Solution);45
3.5.1;1.5.1 Summary;46
3.6;References;46
4;2 The Soil Profile: The Structure of Plant Mineral Interaction Space;49
4.1;2.1 Origins of Alteration Clay Mineral Formation;49
4.2;2.2 Some Fundamental Principles in the Alteration of a Rock are as Follows:;51
4.2.1;2.2.1 Thermal expansion;51
4.2.2;2.2.2 Chemical Controls;52
4.2.2.1;2.2.2.1 Congruent Dissolution;52
4.2.2.2;2.2.2.2 Oxidation;53
4.2.2.3;2.2.2.3 Incongruent Dissolution: Hydration and Ionic Substitution;53
4.2.2.4;2.2.2.4 Destabilization of Clays and Silica Loss;54
4.2.2.5;2.2.2.5 Scale of Alteration and Localization of Clay Minerals in Rock -- Water Interaction;55
4.2.3;2.2.3 Biological Degradation of Rocks and Minerals;60
4.2.3.1;2.2.3.1 Bacteria;61
4.2.3.2;2.2.3.2 Mycorrhizal Fungi;63
4.2.3.3;2.2.3.3 Lichens;66
4.2.3.4;2.2.3.4 Mosses;67
4.2.4;2.2.4 Summary;69
4.3;2.3 The Alteration Soil Profile: Transformation of Rocks into Clay, Sand and Organic Matter Complexes;70
4.3.1;2.3.1 The Transformation of Bedrock into Soil Clays;72
4.3.1.1;2.3.1.1 Saprock Clay Formation and Transformation Kinetics;72
4.3.1.2;2.3.1.2 The A Horizon of Plant -- Soil Interaction;74
4.3.1.3;2.3.1.3 The Effects of Bio-agents;77
4.3.2;2.3.2 Summary;78
4.3.3;2.3.3 The Alteration Profile;80
4.3.4;2.3.4 Summary;83
4.3.5;2.3.5 The Plant -- Mineral Continuum, the A Horizon;83
4.3.5.1;2.3.5.1 Development of the A Horizon;86
4.4;2.4 Soil Classifications: Descriptions and Factors Affecting Alteration Profiles;88
4.4.1;2.4.1 Classification;89
4.4.2;2.4.2 Results of Soil Forming Processes on the Structure of an Alteration Profile;91
4.4.2.1;2.4.2.1 Downward Movement of Clays and Dissolved Material;91
4.4.2.2;2.4.2.2 Upward Movement in Alteration Profiles;94
4.4.3;2.4.3 Summary;95
4.5;References;96
5;3 Physical Factors Affecting Soil Profiles: The Three Dimensional Aspect of Plant Mineral Interaction: Displacements;100
5.1;3.1 Movement of Clay and Soil Material;101
5.1.1;3.1.1 Movement of Clay Particles Within the Soil Zone: Internal Loss of Material;102
5.1.1.1;3.1.1.1 Translocation of Clays From A to B Horizons (Local Vertical Transfer);102
5.1.1.2;3.1.1.2 Translocation of Clays Within Profiles Along a Sequence of Soils: Down the Profile and Down Slope Transport of Clays Within Soils: Lateral Displacement;104
5.1.2;3.1.2 Erosion of Fine Grained Materials From the Surface and Transportation by Water;106
5.1.3;3.1.3 Surface Erosion by Wind Action and Consequent Loess Deposition;108
5.1.4;3.1.4 Summary;110
5.1.5;3.1.5 Transportation and Displacement by Mass Mechanical Failure: Landslides and Slumps;111
5.1.5.1;3.1.5.1 Rock and Soil Slides;111
5.1.5.2;3.1.5.2 Soil Slides;113
5.2;3.2 Retention of Soils and Clay Material by Plants;114
5.2.1;3.2.1 Surface Displacement and Plants;114
5.2.2;3.2.2 The Physical Role of Roots in Stabilizing Alteration Materials;117
5.2.2.1;3.2.2.1 Root Structures;119
5.3;3.3 Fixing and Accumulating Clays in the Surface Horizons;126
5.3.1;3.3.1 Plants as Accumulators of Soil Materials;126
5.3.1.1;3.3.1.1 Salt Marsh Grasses;126
5.3.1.2;3.3.1.2 Grasses and Loessic Materials;127
5.3.1.3;3.3.1.3 River Sediments;128
5.3.2;3.3.2 Plants and Clays in Profiles: Stabilization and Regeneration;129
5.3.2.1;3.3.2.1 Control of the Physical Environment by Plant Cover;129
5.3.2.2;3.3.2.2 Grasses;131
5.3.2.3;3.3.2.3 Clay Content and Possible Re-generation of Clays;131
5.3.3;References;134
6;4 Clay Minerals in Soils: The Interface Between Plants and the Mineral World;136
6.1;4.1 The Silicate Clay Mineral Types Present in Soils;136
6.1.1;4.1.1 Kaolinite and Halloysite, 1:1 Minerals;137
6.1.2;4.1.2 The 2:1 Clay Minerals in Soils;138
6.1.2.1;4.1.2.1 The End Members;138
6.1.2.2;4.1.2.2 Mineral Identification and Mixed Layering: Case Studies;140
6.1.2.3;4.1.2.3 Origin of Mixed Layer 2:1 Clays in Soils;148
6.1.2.4;4.1.2.4 Chlorite Alteration;152
6.1.3;4.1.3 Complex Mixed Layer Minerals (KS): Smectite, Kaolinite and Kaolinite/Smectite Mixed Layer Minerals ;153
6.1.4;4.1.4 Oxides and Hydroxides;153
6.1.4.1;4.1.4.1 Al-Oxy-Hydroxides;153
6.1.4.2;4.1.4.2 Gibbsite (Aluminum Hydroxide);154
6.1.4.3;4.1.4.3 Transition Metal Oxy -- Hydroxides;154
6.1.4.4;4.1.4.4 Laterites;155
6.1.4.5;4.1.4.5 Red Soils;157
6.1.5;4.1.5 Poorly Crystallized Silicates Imogolite and Allophone (Allophone Si -- Rich, Imogolite Si = Al);157
6.1.5.1;4.1.5.1 Rainfall and Vitreous Rocks;158
6.1.5.2;4.1.5.2 Weathering Process;159
6.1.5.3;4.1.5.3 Clay Mineral Origin in Andosols;160
6.1.6;4.1.6 Some Minerals Formed and Found at the Surface but Not in Soils;161
6.1.6.1;4.1.6.1 Palygorskite;161
6.1.6.2;4.1.6.2 Zeolites;162
6.2;4.2 The Critical Clays, the 2:1 Clay Minerals in the A Horizon: Examples in Soil Profiles Showing the Effects of Plants and Their Bio-agents;163
6.2.1;4.2.1 Trees of Different Types: Conifer and Deciduous;163
6.2.2;4.2.2 Trees and Prairies: Contrasts Brought About by Plant Regime;163
6.2.2.1;4.2.2.1 Fluvio -- Glacial Sediment Clays;163
6.2.2.2;4.2.2.2 High Mountain Wet Prairies;164
6.2.2.3;4.2.2.3 Sequoia and Grass;165
6.2.2.4;4.2.2.4 Shrubs and Prairie: Red and Black Soil Sequences;171
6.2.3;4.2.3 Climate, Plants and Soil Clays;172
6.3;References;174
7;5 The Chemistry and Mineralogy of Plant and Soil Interactions: Plant as Manipulators of Their Environment;178
7.1;5.1 Soil Properties Pertinent to the Prosperity of Plants;178
7.1.1;5.1.1 Terrestrial Plants and Peri-Maritime Plants: Alkali Content;178
7.1.2;5.1.2 Elements Needed by Plants;180
7.1.3;5.1.3 Clay Minerals;182
7.1.3.1;5.1.3.1 CEC Cation Exchange;182
7.1.3.2;5.1.3.2 Fixing Potassium in 2:1 Clays;185
7.1.3.3;5.1.3.3 Potassium and Ammonium;185
7.1.3.4;5.1.3.4 Plant Extraction of Potassium;188
7.1.4;5.1.4 Cation Exchange in Soils;190
7.1.5;5.1.5 Role of Clay Minerals in Critical Nutrient Exchange: Potassium and Ammonium;194
7.1.5.1;5.1.5.1 Non Exchangeable or Extractable Cation Occupancies;195
7.1.5.2;5.1.5.2 Nutrient Cycling;196
7.2;5.2 Organic Matter, Clay Minerals and Soil Aggregation (Water Resources for Plants);198
7.2.1;5.2.1 Clay Minerals and Organic Molecules Interactions: Soil Structure Development;198
7.2.1.1;5.2.1.1 Soil Structure Stability and Dynamics;199
7.2.1.2;5.2.1.2 Understanding the Underlying Mechanisms of Soil Structure Development and Stability;200
7.2.2;5.2.2 Consequences of Clay -- Organic Interactions: Soil Structure and Aggregation;202
7.2.2.1;5.2.2.1 Soil Pore Structures, Aggregation and Fractures;203
7.2.2.2;5.2.2.2 The Importance of Soil Structure (Organic Matter and Clays) on Some Soil Properties;209
7.3;5.3 Plants and Soil Chemistry;212
7.3.1;5.3.1 Plant Compositions and Chemical Needs;212
7.3.1.1;5.3.1.1 Silica;213
7.3.1.2;5.3.1.2 Calcium and Magnesium;214
7.3.1.3;5.3.1.3 Potassium;214
7.3.1.4;5.3.1.4 Phosphorous;215
7.3.1.5;5.3.1.5 Nitrogen;216
7.3.1.6;5.3.1.6 Distribution of Elements in the Plant;217
7.3.2;5.3.2 Chemical Profiles in Soils and Alterites Engendered by Plant Activity and Resulting Clay Mineralogy;218
7.3.2.1;5.3.2.1 Clay Minerals;220
7.3.2.2;5.3.2.2 Fixation and Loss of Translocated Elements;221
7.3.2.3;5.3.2.3 Climate, Plants and A Horizon Clays;222
7.4;5.4 Impact of Plants on Clay Minerals and Soil Formation According to Biome Type;226
7.4.1;5.4.1 Prairie and Forest Type Profiles;227
7.4.1.1;5.4.1.1 Prairie;227
7.4.1.2;5.4.1.2 Forest;228
7.4.2;5.4.2 Comparing Forest and Prairie Soils;230
7.4.2.1;5.4.2.1 Temperate and Semi Arid Climates;230
7.4.2.2;5.4.2.2 Hot Wet Climates: Laterites and Plant Regimes;232
7.4.3;5.4.3 Successions and Soil Properties Influenced by Change in Plant Regime;235
7.4.3.1;5.4.3.1 Effect on Soils of Changing Vegetal Cover;236
7.5;5.5 Mineral Element Transfer in Soils: The Translocation Effect;238
7.5.1;5.5.1 Chemical Variability as a Function of Alteration Profiles;238
7.5.1.1;5.5.1.1 Dynamics of the Translocation Effect;243
7.5.2;5.5.2 Parameters of the Translocation Effect;247
7.5.2.1;5.5.2.1 Primary Production of Biomass;247
7.5.2.2;5.5.2.2 Mineral Elements and Biomass;248
7.5.2.3;5.5.2.3 Rainfall and Biomass;248
7.5.2.4;5.5.2.4 Rainfall and Pore Water;249
7.5.3;5.5.3 Modelling Mineral Stability;252
7.6;References;256
8;6 Man and Agriculture: Manipulating Soil Plant Interactions;262
8.1;6.1 The Adventure of Agriculture: the Manipulation of Nature by Man;262
8.1.1;6.1.1 Introduction;263
8.1.1.1;6.1.1.1 Multiple Centers and Multiple Problems;265
8.1.2;6.1.2 History of Traditional Agriculture in Europe: An Example of Soil -- Plant Manipulation: Changing the Landscape Through Agriculture;266
8.1.2.1;6.1.2.1 The Context of the First Steps in Agriculture: Steppe Plants and the Hunter-Gatherer Cultures;267
8.1.2.2;6.1.2.2 The European Experience: Changing Forest Soils into Prairie Soils and the Neolithic Revolution;270
8.1.2.3;6.1.2.3 Agriculture in the Classical Age;274
8.1.2.4;6.1.2.4 Agriculture in the Post Middle Ages in Europe;276
8.1.3;6.1.3 Summary of Classical Farming Practice;279
8.1.4;6.1.4 Science and Agriculture;280
8.1.4.1;6.1.4.1 Eighteenth Century Experimentation and Improvements in the Use of Plants;280
8.1.4.2;6.1.4.2 Nineteenth Century Innovation Through Chemical Investigation;281
8.1.4.3;6.1.4.3 The Truly Revolutionary Agricultural Revolution;283
8.1.5;6.1.5 The American Experience: A Counter Example of Soil Use in the Classical Period;286
8.1.6;6.1.6 Change in Agricultural Land Use;288
8.2;6.2 Effects of Modern Agriculture on Soil Properties: Organic and Clay Mineral Changes;291
8.2.1;6.2.1 Organic Matter and Clay Content;292
8.2.2;6.2.2 Clay Content of Soils;292
8.2.2.1;6.2.2.1 Lanzhou Alfalfa;293
8.2.2.2;6.2.2.2 Rice Culture;294
8.2.3;6.2.3 Tillage Practice;295
8.2.4;6.2.4 Agricultural Practice and Its Results;295
8.2.4.1;6.2.4.1 Prairie Soils;295
8.2.4.2;6.2.4.2 Agriculture on Prairie Soils;300
8.2.4.3;6.2.4.3 Former Forest Soils;304
8.2.4.4;6.2.4.4 Fertilizers;306
8.2.5;6.2.5 Summary;308
8.3;References;308
9;7 Plants and Soils: The Ecological Paradigm of Plants and Clays;311
9.1;7.1 Stabilizing 2:1 Clays;312
9.2;7.2 Potassium Retention;314
9.3;7.3 Humic Matter, Soil Aggregates and Water Potential;315
9.4;7.4 Modelling Chemical Stability;317
9.5;7.5 Roots and Landscapes;318
9.6;7.6 New Pathways;318
9.7;Reference;319
10;Annex A Simplified Methods for the Interpretation of X-Ray Diffraction Diagrams of Soil Clay Assemblages;320
10.1; Annex I X-ray Diffraction Diagrams of Soil Clay Assemblages and a Simplified Method of their Interpretation;320
10.1.1; Decomposition Methods;320
10.1.2; Some Fundamental Concepts of Decomposition Techniques;322
10.1.2.1; Background;322
10.1.2.2; Principles for Decomposition;322
10.1.2.3; Decomposition Examples;326
10.1.2.4; Peak Shape and Intensity Change: The Comparative Method;329
10.2; Annex II Identification of the Major Groups of Clay Minerals;334
10.2.1; Major Mineral Types;334
10.2.2; Inter-Layering of Structural Types;335
10.2.2.1; Illite/Smectites;335
10.2.2.2; HI -- Illite Inter-Stratified Minerals;340
10.3;References;341
11;Index;342