Winterbone FEng / Winterbone / Turan Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers

2. Auflage 2015
ISBN: 978-0-08-099983-8
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 578 Seiten

Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers, Second Edition introduces the basic concepts of thermodynamics and applies them to a wide range of technologies. Authors Desmond Winterbone and Ali Turan also include a detailed study of combustion to show how the chemical energy in a fuel is converted into thermal energy and emissions; analyze fuel cells to give an understanding of the direct conversion of chemical energy to electrical power; and provide a study of property relationships to enable more sophisticated analyses to be made of irreversible thermodynamics, allowing for new ways of efficiently covering energy to power (e.g. solar energy, fuel cells). Worked examples are included in most of the chapters, followed by exercises with solutions. By developing thermodynamics from an explicitly equilibrium perspective and showing how all systems attempt to reach equilibrium (and the effects of these systems when they cannot), Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers, Second Edition provides unparalleled insight into converting any form of energy into power. The theories and applications of this text are invaluable to students and professional engineers of all disciplines. - Includes new chapter that introduces basic terms and concepts for a firm foundation of study - Features clear explanations of complex topics and avoids complicated mathematical analysis - Updated chapters with recent advances in combustion, fuel cells, and more - Solutions manual will be provided for end-of-chapter problems

Desmond Winterbone was the Chair in thermodynamics in UMIST (became University of Manchester in 2004) for 22 years, until his retirement in 2002. He graduated in Mechanical Engineering while undertaking a Student Apprenticeship, where he developed his interest in reciprocating engines. He embarked on PhD studies on diesel engine performance in University of Bath, graduating in 1970. He then joined the staff at UMIST where the general theme of his work was the simulation of prime movers with three main aims: thermodynamic analysis - to obtain a better understanding of engine performance; synthesis - to enable new engine systems to be designed; control - to improve the performance of such systems by feedback mechanisms. He has published five books on thermodynamics and engine simulation.Professor Winterbone served as Vice-Principal, and Pro-Vice Chancellor of UMIST. He retired in 2002, but undertook a number of consultancies and teaching activities: he also obtained a BA in Humanities. Professor Winterbone was an active member of the IMechE Combustion Engine Group and Chairman from May 1991 to 1995. From 1989-96 he was Chairman of the Universities Internal Combustion Engine Group - a discussion forum for research workers and industrialists. He was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1989. He was awarded a Mombusho Visiting Professorship at the University of Tokyo in 1989, and spent three months in University of Canterbury, New Zealand on an Erskine Fellowship in 1994. He has been active in promoting links throughout the world, including particularly Japan and China. In addition he has a number of contacts in Europe and was awarded an Honorary DSc from the University of Gent (Belgium) in 1991.

Zielgruppe

Academic/professional/technical: Undergraduate. Academic/professional/technical: Postgraduate

Autoren/Hrsg.

Winterbone FEng, BSc

Winterbone, D.

Turan, Ali

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Contents;6
5;Preface – First Edition;12
6;Preface – Second Edition;16
7;Structure of the Book;20
8;Notation;22
9;CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION AND REVISION;28
9.1;1.1 THERMODYNAMICS;28
9.2;1.2 DEFINITIONS;29
9.3;1.3 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM AND THE ZEROTH LAW;30
9.4;1.4 TEMPERATURE SCALES;31
9.5;1.5 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SYSTEMS AND SURROUNDINGS;31
9.6;1.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS;39
9.7;1.7 PROBLEMS;39
10;CHAPTER 2 - THE SECOND LAW AND EQUILIBRIUM;40
10.1;2.1 THERMAL EFFICIENCY;40
10.2;2.2 HEAT ENGINE;40
10.3;2.3 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS;40
10.4;2.4 THE CONCEPT OF THE HEAT ENGINE: DERIVED BY ANALOGY WITH A HYDRAULIC DEVICE (TABLE 2.1);41
10.5;2.5 THE ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE;42
10.6;2.6 ENTROPY;42
10.7;2.7 REPRESENTATION OF HEAT ENGINES;44
10.8;2.8 REVERSIBILITY AND IRREVERSIBILITY (FIRST COROLLARY OF SECOND LAW);45
10.9;2.9 EQUILIBRIUM;46
10.10;2.10 HELMHOLTZ ENERGY (HELMHOLTZ FUNCTION);49
10.11;2.11 GIBBS ENERGY;51
10.12;2.12 GIBBS ENERGY AND PHASES;53
10.13;2.13 EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF EQUILIBRIUM MET IN THERMODYNAMICS;54
10.14;2.14 CONCLUDING REMARKS;56
10.15;2.15 PROBLEMS;56
11;CHAPTER 3 - ENGINE CYCLES AND THEIR EFFICIENCIES;62
11.1;3.1 HEAT ENGINES;62
11.2;3.2 AIR-STANDARD CYCLES;70
11.3;3.3 GENERAL COMMENTS ON EFFICIENCIES;79
11.4;3.4 REVERSED HEAT ENGINES;79
11.5;3.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS;83
11.6;3.6 PROBLEMS;83
12;CHAPTER 4 - AVAILABILITY AND EXERGY;88
12.1;4.1 DISPLACEMENT WORK;88
12.2;4.2 AVAILABILITY;89
12.3;4.3 EXAMPLES;91
12.4;4.4 AVAILABLE AND NON-AVAILABLE ENERGY;96
12.5;4.5 IRREVERSIBILITY;97
12.6;4.6 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF AVAILABLE ENERGY AND IRREVERSIBILITY;101
12.7;4.7 AVAILABILITY BALANCE FOR A CLOSED SYSTEM;102
12.8;4.8 AVAILABILITY BALANCE FOR AN OPEN SYSTEM;111
12.9;4.9 EXERGY;112
12.10;4.10 THE VARIATION OF FLOW EXERGY FOR A PERFECT GAS;119
12.11;4.11 CONCLUDING REMARKS;120
12.12;4.12 PROBLEMS;120
13;CHAPTER 5 - RATIONAL EFFICIENCY OF POWER PLANT;126
13.1;5.1 THE INFLUENCE OF FUEL PROPERTIES ON THERMAL EFFICIENCY;126
13.2;5.2 RATIONAL EFFICIENCY;127
13.3;5.3 RANKINE CYCLE;131
13.4;5.4 EXAMPLES;133
13.5;5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS;143
13.6;5.6 PROBLEMS;143
14;CHAPTER 6 - FINITE TIME (OR ENDOREVERSIBLE) THERMODYNAMICS;146
14.1;6.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS;146
14.2;6.2 EFFICIENCY AT MAXIMUM POWER;149
14.3;6.3 EFFICIENCY OF COMBINED CYCLE INTERNALLY REVERSIBLE HEAT ENGINES WHEN PRODUCING MAXIMUM POWER OUTPUT;154
14.4;6.4 PRACTICAL SITUATIONS;159
14.5;6.5 MORE COMPLEX EXAMPLE OF THE USE OF FTT;160
14.6;6.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS;164
14.7;6.7 PROBLEMS;164
15;CHAPTER 7 - GENERAL THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS: FOR SINGLE COMPONENT SYSTEMS OR SYSTEMS OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION;168
15.1;7.1 THE MAXWELL RELATIONSHIPS;168
15.2;7.2 USES OF THE THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS;172
15.3;7.3 TDS RELATIONSHIPS;175
15.4;7.4 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES;179
15.5;7.5 THE CLAUSIUS–CLAPEYRON EQUATION;183
15.6;7.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS;186
15.7;7.7 PROBLEMS;186
16;CHAPTER 8 - EQUATIONS OF STATE;190
16.1;8.1 IDEAL GAS LAW;190
16.2;8.2 VAN DER WAALS EQUATION OF STATE;192
16.3;PROBLEM;194
16.4;8.3 LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES;194
16.5;8.4 ISOTHERMS OR ISOBARS IN THE TWO-PHASE REGION;198
16.6;8.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS;200
16.7;8.6 PROBLEMS;201
17;CHAPTER 9 - THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF IDEAL GASES AND IDEAL GAS MIXTURES OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION;204
17.1;9.1 MOLECULAR WEIGHTS;204
17.2;9.2 STATE EQUATION FOR IDEAL GASES;205
17.3;9.3 TABLES OF U(T) AND H(T) AGAINST T;210
17.4;9.4 MIXTURES OF IDEAL GASES;222
17.5;9.5 ENTROPY OF MIXTURES;226
17.6;9.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS;228
17.7;9.7 PROBLEMS;229
18;CHAPTER 10 - THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION;234
18.1;10.1 SIMPLE CHEMISTRY;235
18.2;10.2 COMBUSTION OF SIMPLE HYDROCARBON FUELS;238
18.3;10.3 HEATS OF FORMATION AND HEATS OF REACTION;240
18.4;10.4 APPLICATION OF THE ENERGY EQUATION TO THE COMBUSTION PROCESS – A MACROSCOPIC APPROACH;241
18.5;10.5 COMBUSTION PROCESSES;246
18.6;10.6 EXAMPLES;249
18.7;10.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS;259
18.8;10.8 PROBLEMS;260
19;CHAPTER 11 - CHEMISTRY OF COMBUSTION;262
19.1;11.1 BOND ENERGIES AND HEAT OF FORMATION;262
19.2;11.2 ENERGY OF FORMATION;264
19.3;11.3 ENTHALPY OF REACTION;272
19.4;11.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS;272
20;CHAPTER 12 - CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND DISSOCIATION;274
20.1;12.1 GIBBS ENERGY;274
20.2;12.2 CHEMICAL POTENTIAL, µ;276
20.3;12.3 STOICHIOMETRY;277
20.4;12.4 DISSOCIATION;278
20.5;12.5 CALCULATION OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND THE LAW OF MASS ACTION;282
20.6;12.6 VARIATION OF GIBBS ENERGY WITH COMPOSITION;285
20.7;12.7 EXAMPLES OF SIGNIFICANCE OF KP;287
20.8;12.8 THE VAN'T HOFF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT AND HEAT OF REACTION;294
20.9;12.9 THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE ON DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION;297
20.10;12.10 DISSOCIATION CALCULATIONS FOR THE EVALUATION OF NITRIC OXIDE;299
20.11;12.11 DISSOCIATION PROBLEMS WITH TWO, OR MORE, DEGREES OF DISSOCIATION;301
20.12;12.12 CONCLUDING REMARKS;316
20.13;12.13 PROBLEMS;317
21;CHAPTER 13 - EFFECT OF DISSOCIATION ON COMBUSTION PARAMETERS;322
21.1;13.1 CALCULATION OF COMBUSTION BOTH WITH AND WITHOUT DISSOCIATION;323
21.2;13.2 THE BASIC REACTIONS;323
21.3;13.3 THE EFFECT OF DISSOCIATION ON PEAK PRESSURE;324
21.4;13.4 THE EFFECT OF DISSOCIATION ON PEAK TEMPERATURE;325
21.5;13.5 THE EFFECT OF DISSOCIATION ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE PRODUCTS;325
21.6;13.6 THE EFFECT OF FUEL ON COMPOSITION OF THE PRODUCTS;329
21.7;13.7 THE FORMATION OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN;329
21.8;13.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS;332
22;CHAPTER 14 - CHEMICAL KINETICS;334
22.1;14.1 INTRODUCTION;334
22.2;14.2 REACTION RATES;335
22.3;14.3 RATE CONSTANT FOR REACTION, K;338
22.4;14.4 CHEMICAL KINETICS OF NO;339
22.5;14.5 OTHER KINETICS-CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS;344
22.6;14.6 THE EFFECT OF POLLUTANTS FORMED THROUGH CHEMICAL KINETICS;345
22.7;14.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS;348
22.8;14.8 PROBLEMS;348
23;CHAPTER 15 - COMBUSTION AND FLAMES;350
23.1;15.1 INTRODUCTION;350
23.2;15.2 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION;351
23.3;15.3 EXPLOSION LIMITS;353
23.4;15.4 FLAMES;355
23.5;15.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS;370
23.6;15.6 PROBLEMS;371
24;CHAPTER 16 - RECIPROCATING INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES;372
24.1;16.1 INTRODUCTION;372
24.2;16.2 FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS OF BASIC ENGINE CYCLES;373
24.3;16.3 SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES;379
24.4;16.4 DIESEL (COMPRESSION IGNITION) ENGINES;381
24.5;16.5 FRICTION IN RECIPROCATING ENGINES;386
24.6;16.6 SIMULATION OF COMBUSTION IN SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES;391
24.7;16.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS;402
24.8;16.8 PROBLEMS;403
25;CHAPTER 17 - GAS TURBINES;408
25.1;17.1 THE GAS TURBINE CYCLE;409
25.2;17.2 SIMPLE GAS TURBINE CYCLE ANALYSIS;411
25.3;17.3 AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINES;428
25.4;17.4 COMBUSTION IN GAS TURBINES;442
25.5;17.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS;447
25.6;17.6 PROBLEMS;447
26;CHAPTER 18 - LIQUEFACTION OF GASES;450
26.1;18.1 LIQUEFACTION BY COOLING – METHOD (I);450
26.2;18.2 LIQUEFACTION BY EXPANSION – METHOD (II);455
26.3;18.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS;470
26.4;18.4 PROBLEMS;470
27;CHAPTER 19 - PINCH TECHNOLOGY;474
27.1;19.1 HEAT TRANSFER NETWORK WITHOUT A PINCH PROBLEM;474
27.2;19.2 STEP 1: TEMPERATURE INTERVALS;477
27.3;19.3 STEP 2: INTERVAL HEAT BALANCES;479
27.4;19.4 HEAT TRANSFER NETWORK WITH A PINCH POINT;484
27.5;19.5 STEP 3: HEAT CASCADING;485
27.6;19.6 PROBLEMS;489
28;CHAPTER 20 - IRREVERSIBLE THERMODYNAMICS;494
28.1;20.1 DEFINITION OF IRREVERSIBLE OR STEADY-STATE THERMODYNAMICS;494
28.2;20.2 ENTROPY FLOW AND ENTROPY PRODUCTION;495
28.3;20.3 THERMODYNAMIC FORCES AND THERMODYNAMIC VELOCITIES;496
28.4;20.4 ONSAGER'S RECIPROCAL RELATION;497
28.5;20.5 THE CALCULATION OF ENTROPY PRODUCTION OR ENTROPY FLOW;499
28.6;20.6 THERMOELECTRICITY – THE APPLICATION OF IRREVERSIBLE THERMODYNAMICS TO A THERMOCOUPLE;500
28.7;20.7 DIFFUSION AND HEAT TRANSFER;511
28.8;20.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS;521
28.9;20.9 PROBLEMS;521
29;CHAPTER 21 - FUEL CELLS;524
29.1;21.1 TYPES OF FUEL CELLS;525
29.2;21.2 THEORY OF FUEL CELLS;530
29.3;21.3 EFFICIENCY OF A FUEL CELL;542
29.4;21.4 THERMODYNAMICS OF CELLS WORKING IN STEADY STATE;543
29.5;21.5 LOSSES IN FUEL CELLS;545
29.6;21.6 SOURCES OF HYDROGEN FOR FUEL CELLS;550
29.7;21.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS;552
29.8;21.8 PROBLEMS;552

Leseproben

Preface – First Edition

When reviewing, or contemplating writing, a text-book on engineering thermodynamics, it is necessary to ask what does this book offer that is not already available? The author has taught thermodynamics to mechanical engineering students, at both undergraduate and postgraduate level, for 25years, and has found that the existing texts cover very adequately the basic theories of the subject. However, by the final years of a course, and at postgraduate level, the material which is presented is very much influenced by the lecturer, and here it is less easy to find one book which covers all the syllabus in the required manner. This book attempts to answer this need, for the author at least.

The engineer is essentially concerned with manufacturing devices to enable tasks to be performed cost-effectively and efficiently. Engineering has produced a new generation of automatic ‘slaves’ which enable those in the developed countries to maintain their lifestyle by the consumption of fuels rather than by manual labour. The developing countries still rely to a large extent on ‘manpower’, but the pace of development is such that the whole world wishes to have the machines and quality of life which we, in the developed countries, take for granted: this is a major challenge to the engineer, and particularly the thermodynamicist. The reason why the thermodynamicist plays a key role in this scenario is because the methods of converting any form of energy into power are the domain of thermodynamics: all of these processes obey the four laws of thermodynamics, and their efficiency is controlled by the second law. The emphasis of the early years of an undergraduate course is on the first law of thermodynamics, which is simply the conservation of energy; the first law does not give any information on the quality of the energy. It is the hope of the author that this text will introduce the concept of the quality of energy and help future engineers use our resources more efficiently. Ironically, some of the largest demands for energy may come from cooling (e.g. refrigeration and air-conditioning) as the developing countries in the tropical regions become wealthier – this might require a more basic way of considering energy utilisation than that emphasised in current thermodynamic texts. This book attempts to introduce basic concepts which should apply over the whole range of new technologies covered by engineering thermodynamics. It considers new approaches to cycles, which enable their irreversibility to be taken into account; a detailed study of combustion to show how the chemical energy in a fuel is converted into thermal energy and emissions; an analysis of fuel cells to give an understanding of the direct conversion of chemical energy to electrical power; a detailed study of property relationships to enable more sophisticated analyses to be made of both high and low temperature plant; and irreversible thermodynamics, whose principles might hold a key to new ways of efficiently converting energy to power (e.g. solar energy, fuel cells).

The great advances in the understanding and teaching of thermodynamics came rapidly towards the end of the nineteenth century, and it was not until the 1940s that these were embodied in thermodynamics textbooks for mechanical engineers. Some of the approaches used in teaching thermodynamics still contain the assumptions embodied in the theories of heat engines without explicitly recognising the limitations they impose. It was the desire to remove some of these shortcomings, together with an increasing interest in what limits the efficiency of thermodynamic devices, that led the author down the path which has culminated in this text.

I am still a strong believer in the pedagogical necessity of introducing thermodynamics through the traditional route of the zeroth, first, second and third laws, rather than attempting to use the Single-Axiom Theorem of Hatsopoulos and Keenan, or The Law of Stable Equilibrium of Haywood. While both of these approaches enable thermodynamics to be developed in a logical manner, and limit the reliance on cyclic processes, their understanding benefits from years of experience – the one thing students are lacking. I have structured this book on the conventional method of developing the subject. The other dilemma in developing an advanced level text is whether to introduce a significant amount of statistical thermodynamics; since this subject is related to the particulate nature of matter, and most engineers deal with systems far from regions where molecular motion dominates the processes, the majority of the book is based on equilibrium thermodynamics; which concentrates on the macroscopic nature of systems. A few examples of statistical thermodynamics are introduced to demonstrate certain forms of behaviour, but a full understanding of the subject is not a requirement of the text.

The book contains XX chapters and while this might seem an excessive number, these are of a size where they can be readily incorporated into a degree course with a modular structure. Many such courses will be based on 2h lecturing per week, and this means that most of the chapters can be presented in a single week. Worked examples are included in most of the chapters to illustrate the concepts being propounded, and the chapters are followed by exercises. Some of these have been developed from texts which are now not available (e.g. Benson, Haywood) and others are based on examination questions. Solutions are provided for all the questions. The properties of gases have been derived from polynomial coefficients published by Benson: All the parameters quoted have been evaluated by the author using these coefficients, and equations published in the text: this means that all the values are self-consistent, which is not the case in all texts. Some of the combustion questions have been solved using computer programs developed at UMIST, and these are all based on these gas property polynomials. If the reader uses other data, e.g. JANAF tables, the solutions obtained might differ slightly from those quoted.

Engineering thermodynamics is basically equilibrium thermodynamics although for the first two years of the conventional undergraduate course these words are used but not often defined. Much of the thermodynamics done in the early years of a course also relies heavily on reversibility, without explicit consideration of the effects of irreversibility. Yet, if the performance of thermodynamic devices is to be improved, it is the irreversibility which must be tackled. This book introduces the effects of irreversibility through considerations of availability (exergy), and the concept of the endoreversible engine. The thermal efficiency is related to that of an ideal cycle by the rational efficiency – to demonstrate how closely the performance of an engine approaches that of a reversible one. It is also shown that the Carnot efficiency is a very artificial yardstick against which to compare real engines: the internal and external reversibilities imposed by the cycle mean that it produces zero power at the maximum achievable efficiency. The approach by Curzon and Ahlborn to define the efficiency of an endoreversible engine producing maximum power output is introduced: this shows the effect of external irreversibility. This analysis also introduces the concept of entropy generation in a manner readily understandable by the engineer; this concept is the cornerstone of the theories of irreversible thermodynamics which are at the end of the text.

Whilst the laws of thermodynamics can be developed in isolation from consideration of the property relationships of the system under consideration, it is these relationships which enable the equations to be closed. Most undergraduate texts are based on the evaluation of the fluid properties from the simple perfect gas law, or from tables and charts. While this approach enables typical engineering problems to be solved, it does not give much insight into some of the phenomena which can happen under certain circumstances. For example, is the specific heat at constant volume a function of temperature alone for gases in certain regions of the state diagram? Also, why is the assumption of constant stagnation, or even static, temperature valid for flow of a perfect gas through a throttle, but never for steam? An understanding of these effects can be obtained by examination of the more complex equations of state. This immediately enables methods of gas liquefaction to be introduced.

An important area of engineering thermodynamics is the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. These have formed the driving force for the improvement of living standards which has been seen over the last century, but they are presumably finite, and are producing levels of pollution that are a constant challenge to engineers. At present, there is the threat of global warming due to the build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: this requires more efficient engines to be produced, or for the carbon/hydrogen ratio in fuels to be reduced. Both of these are major challenges, and while California can legislate for the zero emissions vehicle (ZEV) this might not be a worldwide solution. It is said that the ZEV is an electric car running in Los Angeles on power produced in Arizona! – obviously a case of exporting pollution rather than reducing it. The real challenge is not what is happening in the West, although the energy consumption of the United States is prodigious, but how can the aspirations of the East be met. The combustion technologies developed today...