Yahya Carbon and Oxide Nanostructures

Synthesis, Characterisation and Applications
1. Auflage 2011
ISBN: 978-3-642-14673-2
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 5, 416 Seiten

Reihe: Advanced Structured Materials

This volume covers all aspects of carbon and oxide based nanostructured materials. The topics include synthesis, characterization and application of carbon-based namely carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibres, fullerenes, carbon filled composites etc. In addition, metal oxides namely, ZnO, TiO2, Fe2O3, ferrites, garnets etc., for various applications like sensors, solar cells, transformers, antennas, catalysts, batteries, lubricants, are presented. The book also includes the modeling of oxide and carbon based nanomaterials. The book covers the topics: Synthesis, characterization and application of carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibres, fullerenes Synthesis, characterization and application of oxide based nanomaterials. Nanostructured magnetic and electric materials and their applications. Nanostructured materials for petro-chemical industry. Oxide and carbon based thin films for electronics and sustainable energy. Theory, calculations and modeling of nanostructured materials.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Yahya, Noorhana

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Carbon and Oxide Nanostructures;3
1.1;Preface;5
1.2;Contents;7
1.3;Carbon Nanotubes: The Minuscule Wizards;9
1.3.1;1 Introduction;9
1.3.2;2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes;10
1.3.2.1;2.1 Laser Ablation Technique;10
1.3.2.2;2.2 Microwave Irradiation Method;16
1.3.2.2.1;2.2.1 Vertically Aligned CNTs;18
1.3.3;3 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) Properties;19
1.3.4;4 Potential Applications of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs);20
1.3.4.1;4.1 Field Emission Devices and Field Effect Transistors;21
1.3.4.2;4.2 Catalyst Support;22
1.3.4.3;4.3 Sensors;25
1.3.4.4;4.4 Dye Sensitized Solar Cells (DCS);26
1.3.4.4.1;4.4.1 Light Scattering Phenomena Effect;27
1.3.5;5 Conclusion;28
1.3.6;References;28
1.4;Synthesis of Carbon Nanostructures by CVD Method;31
1.4.1;1 Introduction to Carbon Nanomaterials;31
1.4.2;2 Structure of Carbon;33
1.4.3;3 Synthesis Methods of Carbon Nanotubes;35
1.4.3.1;3.1 Arc-Discharge;37
1.4.3.2;3.2 Laser Ablation;37
1.4.3.3;3.3 Thermal Catalytic Chemical Vapour Deposition;39
1.4.3.3.1;3.3.1 Synthesis of Aligned Carbon Nanotubes;40
1.4.3.3.2;3.3.2 Synthesis of Nitrogen Doped Nanotubes;41
1.4.3.4;3.4 Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition;44
1.4.4;4 Other Forms of Carbon Nanostructures;45
1.4.4.1;4.1 Carbon Nanotube Fibres;46
1.4.4.2;4.2 3D Carbon-Carbon Nanomaterials;50
1.4.5;5 Conclusions;52
1.4.6;References;52
1.5;Fullerene (C60) and its Derivatives as Resists for Electron Beam Lithography;58
1.5.1;1 Lithography;59
1.5.1.1;1.1 Photolithography;60
1.5.1.2;1.2 Other Lithography Techniques;64
1.5.1.2.1;1.2.1 Dip-Pen Nanolithography;65
1.5.1.2.2;1.2.2 Nanoimprint Lithography;65
1.5.1.2.3;1.2.3 Ion Projection Lithography;66
1.5.1.2.4;1.2.4 X-Ray Lithography;66
1.5.2;2 Electron Beam Lithography;67
1.5.2.1;2.1 Direct Write;67
1.5.2.2;2.2 Projection Systems;68
1.5.3;3 Electron Beam Resists;68
1.5.3.1;3.1 Exposure of Electron Beam Resists;69
1.5.3.2;3.2 Electron Solid Interaction;69
1.5.3.3;3.3 Characteristics of Resists;71
1.5.3.3.1;3.3.1 Sensitivity;71
1.5.3.3.2;3.3.2 Resolution;72
1.5.3.3.3;3.3.3 Contrast;72
1.5.3.3.4;3.3.4 Etch Resistance;73
1.5.3.4;3.4 Current Resists;73
1.5.3.4.1;3.4.1 PMMA (Poly(Methyl Methacrylate));74
1.5.3.4.2;3.4.2 Hydrogen SilsesQuioxane;74
1.5.3.4.3;3.4.3 Other Polymer Resists;75
1.5.3.4.4;3.4.4 Molecular Resists;75
1.5.3.4.5;3.4.5 Calixarene Derivatives;76
1.5.3.4.5.1;Catechol;76
1.5.3.4.5.2;Triphenylene Derivatives;77
1.5.3.4.5.3;Fullerene (C60) Derivatives;77
1.5.4;4 Chemically Amplified Resist;79
1.5.4.1;4.1 Chemically Amplified Electron Beam Resists;81
1.5.4.2;4.2 Chemically Amplified Fullerene Resists;81
1.5.5;5 Conclusion;83
1.5.6;References;83
1.6;Hydrogenated Amorphous Carbon Films;86
1.6.1;1 Introduction;87
1.6.2;2 Method of Preparing a-C:H Thin Film;89
1.6.2.1;2.1 Direct Current-Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition System;89
1.6.2.1.1;2.1.1 Plasma Reactor;89
1.6.2.1.2;2.1.2 Power Supply;90
1.6.2.1.3;2.1.3 Gas System;90
1.6.3;3 Sample Preparation;91
1.6.4;4 Substrate Preparation;91
1.6.5;5 Deposition Parameters;92
1.6.6;6 Sample Characterizations;93
1.6.6.1;6.1 Structural and Optical Analysis;93
1.6.6.1.1;6.1.1 Infrared Spectroscopy;93
1.6.6.1.2;6.1.2 Laser Raman Spectroscopy;94
1.6.6.1.3;6.1.3 UV/Visible Spectrophotometer;94
1.6.6.1.4;6.1.4 Photoluminescence Spectroscopy;95
1.6.6.2;6.2 Measurement of Film Thicknesses;96
1.6.6.2.1;6.2.1 Ellipsometer;96
1.6.7;7 Structural and Optical Properties of a-C:H Films;96
1.6.7.1;7.1 Infrared Spectra;96
1.6.7.2;7.2 Raman Spectra;98
1.6.7.3;7.3 Optical Band Gap;99
1.6.7.4;7.4 Photoluminescence;101
1.6.8;8 Ions Bombardment Calculation;102
1.6.9;9 Conclusion;104
1.6.10;References;105
1.7;Carbon Nanotubes Towards Polymer Solar Cell;107
1.7.1;1 Introduction;107
1.7.1.1;1.1 Device Fabrication;108
1.7.2;2 Organic Semiconducting Materials and Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs);109
1.7.2.1;2.1 Merits of Organic Semiconductor Materials;109
1.7.2.2;2.2 Demerits of Organic Semiconducting Materials;110
1.7.3;3 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs);110
1.7.3.1;3.1 Charge Separation;111
1.7.3.2;3.2 Improvement of Polymer Solar Cell by CNTs Incorporation;112
1.7.4;4 CNT Incorporated Polymer Solar Cell;113
1.7.4.1;4.1 Layer Assembly at Desire Location;113
1.7.4.1.1;4.1.1 Functionalization of CNTs;113
1.7.4.1.2;4.1.2 Chemical Treatment on Energy Level of CNT Films;115
1.7.4.2;4.2 CNTs Films: An Alternative to ITO;117
1.7.4.3;4.3 CNTs Films as 3-D Charge Collector;118
1.7.4.4;4.4 CNTs Blend with Organic Polymer;119
1.7.4.4.1;4.4.1 CNTs in Organic Polymer;119
1.7.4.4.2;4.4.2 Water Soluble Organic Solar Cell;121
1.7.4.4.3;4.4.3 Semiconductor SWCNTs in Organic Polymer;122
1.7.5;5 Organic/CNTs-Si Heterojunction Solar Cell;122
1.7.6;6 Conclusion;126
1.7.7;References;126
1.8;Irregular Configurations of Carbon Nanofibers;130
1.8.1;1 Introduction;130
1.8.2;2 Growth Mechanism;131
1.8.3;3 Reaction Parameters;132
1.8.4;4 Characterization of CNF;134
1.8.5;5 Synthesis of Carbon Nanofibers;135
1.8.6;6 Reaction Mechanism;137
1.8.7;7 X-Ray Diffraction and Raman Spectroscopy Analyses;138
1.8.8;8 Surface and Morphology;139
1.8.9;9 Conclusion;144
1.8.10;References;145
1.9;Molecular Simulation to Rationalize Structure-Property Correlation of Carbon Nanotube;147
1.9.1;1 Introduction;147
1.9.1.1;1.1 Hybridization in a Carbon Atom;148
1.9.1.2;1.2 Electronic Structure;150
1.9.1.3;1.3 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes;152
1.9.2;2 Model;153
1.9.3;3 Method;154
1.9.4;4 Grand Canonical Monte Carlo (GCMC) Results;156
1.9.5;5 Density Functional Theory (DFT) Calculation Method;158
1.9.6;6 Reactivity Concept and Theory;158
1.9.7;7 Molecular Modeling;161
1.9.8;8 Conclusion;166
1.9.9;References;167
1.10;Carbon Nanostructured Materials;169
1.10.1;1 Introduction;170
1.10.2;2 Carbon Structures;170
1.10.3;3 New Carbon Structures;174
1.10.3.1;3.1 Fullerenes;175
1.10.3.2;3.2 Carbon Fibers;176
1.10.3.3;3.3 Glassy Carbon;176
1.10.3.4;3.4 Carbon Black;177
1.10.3.5;3.5 Amorphous Carbon;177
1.10.3.6;3.6 Diamond;178
1.10.3.7;3.7 Graphite;178
1.10.3.8;3.8 Buckminsterfullerenes;179
1.10.3.9;3.9 Carbon Nanotubes;180
1.10.3.10;3.10 Catalyst Nanoparticles for Carbon Nanotubes;182
1.10.3.11;3.11 Preparation of Carbon Nanotubes;186
1.10.3.11.1;3.11.1 Surface Morphology;187
1.10.3.12;3.12 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes;192
1.10.3.12.1;3.12.1 Lithium-Ion Battery;192
1.10.3.12.2;3.12.2 Additives to the Electrodes of Lead-Acid Batteries;193
1.10.3.12.3;3.12.3 The Electric Double-Layer Capacitor;193
1.10.3.12.4;3.12.4 Fuel Cells;193
1.10.3.12.5;3.12.5 Multifunctional Fillers in Polymer Composite;194
1.10.4;4 Conclusion;195
1.10.5;References;195
1.11;Diamond: Synthesis, Characterisation and Applications;198
1.11.1;1 Introduction;199
1.11.2;2 Diamond;199
1.11.2.1;2.1 Natural Diamond;200
1.11.2.2;2.2 Synthetic Diamond;200
1.11.2.3;2.3 High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) Diamond;202
1.11.2.4;2.4 Low Pressure Low Temperature CVD Diamond Synthesis;202
1.11.3;3 Mechanism of CVD Diamond Growth;203
1.11.3.1;3.1 Choice of Substrate for Diamond Growth;204
1.11.3.2;3.2 Substrate Pretreatment Methods and Diamond Nucleation;205
1.11.3.3;3.3 The Role of Atomic Hydrogen in CVD Diamond Growth;209
1.11.4;4 Plasma Enhanced Techniques for Chemical Vapour Deposition Diamond Synthesis;209
1.11.4.1;4.1 Microwave Plasma Enhanced CVD (MWPECVD);209
1.11.4.2;4.2 Direct Current (DC) Plasma Enhanced CVD;210
1.11.4.3;4.3 Radio Frequency Plasma Enhanced CVD;211
1.11.5;5 Doping of CVD Diamond;212
1.11.6;6 Characterization of CVD Diamond;213
1.11.6.1;6.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM);213
1.11.6.2;6.2 X-Ray Diffraction;213
1.11.6.3;6.3 Raman Spectroscopy;215
1.11.7;7 Potential Applications of CVD Diamond;217
1.11.8;8 Challenges of Industrial Scale CVD Diamond Production;217
1.11.9;9 Summary;218
1.11.10;References;218
1.12;Versatility of ZnO Nanostructures;221
1.12.1;1 Introduction;221
1.12.2;2 Crystal Structure of ZnO;222
1.12.3;3 Synthesis Techniques;223
1.12.3.1;3.1 Gas Phase Method;223
1.12.3.1.1;3.1.1 Vapour-Solid (VS) and Vapour-Liquid-Solid (VLS) Methods;223
1.12.3.1.2;3.1.2 Metal Organic Chemical Vapour Deposition (MOCVD);224
1.12.3.2;3.2 Solution Phase Method;225
1.12.3.2.1;3.2.1 Hydrothermal Method;226
1.12.4;4 Morphological Studies of Nanostructures ZnO;226
1.12.4.1;4.1 Nanowires and Nanorods;226
1.12.4.2;4.2 Nanotubes;228
1.12.4.3;4.3 Nanobelts;229
1.12.4.4;4.4 Nanorings and Nanohelix;229
1.12.4.5;4.5 ZnO Nanoflowers;231
1.12.4.6;4.6 Quantum Dots;233
1.12.5;5 Applications of ZnO Nanostructures;235
1.12.5.1;5.1 Gas Sensors;235
1.12.5.2;5.2 Solar Cell;236
1.12.5.3;5.3 Field Effect Transistor;238
1.12.5.4;5.4 Piezoelectric Application;240
1.12.5.5;5.5 Electromagnetic(EM) Detector;242
1.12.6;6 Conclusion;244
1.12.7;References;245
1.13;Supported Nanoparticles for Fuel Synthesis;247
1.13.1;1 Introduction;247
1.13.2;2 Preparation of Catalyst Support;249
1.13.3;3 Preparation and Microscopic Characterization of Oxide-Supported Iron Nanoparticles;249
1.13.3.1;3.1 Preparation of Iron Nanoparticles;249
1.13.3.2;3.2 Colloidal Method [9];250
1.13.3.3;3.3 Reverse Microemulsion Method [9, 14];252
1.13.3.4;3.4 Ammonia Deposition Method [15];253
1.13.3.5;3.5 Impregnation Method;254
1.13.4;4 Preparation and Microscopic Characterization of Oxide-Supported Cobalt Nanoparticles;254
1.13.4.1;4.1 Preparation of Cobalt Nanoparticles;254
1.13.4.2;4.2 Impregnation Method;255
1.13.4.3;4.3 Precipitation Method;257
1.13.4.4;4.4 Strong Electrostatic Adsorption (SEA) Method;258
1.13.5;5 Preparation and Microscopic Characterization of CNT-Supported Iron and Cobalt Nanoparticles;260
1.13.5.1;5.1 Preparation of Cobalt and Iron Nanocatalysts Supported on CNTs;260
1.13.6;6 Conclusion;262
1.13.7;References;263
1.14;Nanotechnology in Solar Hydrogen Production;265
1.14.1;1 Introduction;265
1.14.2;2 Solar Hydrogen Generation;267
1.14.2.1;2.1 Electrolysis;268
1.14.2.2;2.2 Electrolysis Evolution;269
1.14.3;3 Nano-Solar Hydrogen;270
1.14.3.1;3.1 Applications of Nanotubes in Solar Collectors;271
1.14.4;4 Design of an Integrated Solar-Nano Hydrogen System;272
1.14.4.1;4.1 Solar Radiation;273
1.14.4.2;4.2 Solar Cells;275
1.14.4.3;4.3 Solar Thermal Collector;277
1.14.4.4;4.4 Simulation Approach;278
1.14.4.5;4.5 Simulation Results;278
1.14.5;5 Conclusion;280
1.14.6;References;281
1.15;Fe-FeO Nanocomposites: Preparation, Characterization and Magnetic Properties;283
1.15.1;1 Introduction;284
1.15.2;2 Preparation Methods of Fe-FeO;286
1.15.3;3 Magnetic Properties;294
1.15.3.1;3.1 Saturation Magnetization and Coercivity;294
1.15.3.2;3.2 Exchange Bias Effect in Fe-FeO;300
1.15.4;4 Conclusion;306
1.15.5;References;306
1.16;Nanostructured Materials Use in Sensors: Their Benefits and Drawbacks;308
1.16.1;1 Introduction to Nanostructured Materials and Sensing Principles;308
1.16.1.1;1.1 General Aspects of Nanostructured Materials;308
1.16.1.2;1.2 Analytical Aspects of Sensors;310
1.16.1.2.1;1.2.1 Definition and Classification of Chemical Sensors;311
1.16.1.2.2;1.2.2 Opto-Chemical Sensor (opt(R)odes);314
1.16.1.2.2.1;Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensors;314
1.16.1.2.2.2;Optical Detection Principles;315
1.16.1.2.3;1.2.3 Key Factors Influencing the Optical Sensor Characteristics;316
1.16.1.2.3.1;Indicators;316
1.16.1.2.3.2;Immobilization Techniques;317
1.16.1.2.3.3;Polymers;317
1.16.1.2.4;1.2.4 Effect of Nanodimensions on Sensor Characteristics;318
1.16.2;2 Nanomaterials Used in Sensors;320
1.16.2.1;2.1 Semiconducting Quantum Dots;321
1.16.2.1.1;2.1.1 Semiconducting ``Core-Shell´´ Systems;325
1.16.2.2;2.2 Polymers and Sol-Gel Materials;329
1.16.2.2.1;2.2.1 Polymers;329
1.16.2.2.2;2.2.2 Sol-Gel Materials;330
1.16.2.2.3;2.2.3 The Use of Core-Shell Systems for Sensing Chemistry;331
1.16.3;3 Applications of Optical Chemical Nanosensors;332
1.16.3.1;3.1 Sensors Based on Quantum Dots;332
1.16.3.2;3.2 Sensors Based on Polymers and Sol-Gel Materials;338
1.16.3.2.1;3.2.1 Nanosensors for pH;338
1.16.3.2.2;3.2.2 Nanosensors for Oxygen;341
1.16.3.2.3;3.2.3 Nanosensors for Ions;341
1.16.3.2.4;3.2.4 Nanosensors for Other Molecules;344
1.16.4;4 Future Trends of Nanomaterial-Based Optical Chemical Sensors;346
1.16.5;References;347
1.17;Zinc Oxide Nanostructured Thin Films: Preparation and Characterization;356
1.17.1;1 Introduction;356
1.17.2;2 Zinc Oxide Properties;358
1.17.3;3 Preparation Methods of ZnO Thin Film;359
1.17.3.1;3.1 Sol-Gel Method;359
1.17.3.2;3.2 Sol-Gel in ZnO Thin Film Preparation;360
1.17.4;4 Effect of Annealing Process and Precursor Molar Concentration;363
1.17.4.1;4.1 Surface Morphology;363
1.17.4.2;4.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Spectra;364
1.17.4.3;4.3 Absorption Coefficient Spectra;366
1.17.4.4;4.4 Photoluminescence (PL) Spectra;367
1.17.4.5;4.5 Current-Voltage (I-V) Spectra;369
1.17.5;5 Conclusion;372
1.17.6;References;372
1.18;Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles;375
1.18.1;1 Introduction;375
1.18.2;2 Magnetic Nanoparticles Synthesis Methods;377
1.18.2.1;2.1 Aerosol/Vapour (Pyrolysis) Method;377
1.18.2.2;2.2 Gas Deposition Method;377
1.18.2.3;2.3 Transferred Arc Plasma Induced Gas Phase Condensation Method;377
1.18.2.4;2.4 Sol-Gel Method;377
1.18.2.5;2.5 Co-Precipitation;379
1.18.2.6;2.6 Microemulsion (or Reverse Micelle Synthesis);380
1.18.2.7;2.7 Polyol Process;381
1.18.2.8;2.8 Electrochemical Synthesis;381
1.18.2.9;2.9 Pechini (Citrate Method);381
1.18.2.10;2.10 Gel-to-Crystalline Method;381
1.18.3;3 Stabilization of Magnetic Nanoparticles;383
1.18.4;4 Effects of Varying Synthesis Parameters;385
1.18.4.1;4.1 pH;386
1.18.4.2;4.2 Reaction Temperature;386
1.18.4.3;4.3 Reaction Time;386
1.18.4.4;4.4 Concentration of Alkaline Solution (Base);387
1.18.4.5;4.5 Molar Ratio of Fe3+/Fe2+ Salts;387
1.18.4.6;4.6 Type of Base;387
1.18.4.7;4.7 Iron Salts Addition Method;387
1.18.4.8;4.8 Aging Period;387
1.18.4.9;4.9 Concentration of Fe2+ Salt;388
1.18.5;5 Applications of Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles;388
1.18.5.1;5.1 Contrast Enhancement Agent for Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI);388
1.18.5.2;5.2 Hyperthermia Agents;389
1.18.5.3;5.3 Site-Specific Drug Delivery;389
1.18.6;6 Conclusion;390
1.18.7;References;391
1.19;Ammonia Synthesis;394
1.19.1;1 Introduction;394
1.19.2;2 Ammonia Synthesis;395
1.19.2.1;2.1 Catalytic Reaction;396
1.19.2.1.1;2.1.1 Adsorption Process;396
1.19.2.1.2;2.1.2 Desorption;397
1.19.3;3 Catalyst for Ammonia Synthesis;398
1.19.3.1;3.1 Synthesis and Characterization of Catalysts;401
1.19.4;4 Microreactor;405
1.19.4.1;4.1 Ammonia Production Patents;408
1.19.5;5 Conclusion;411
1.19.6;References;411