Jackson Renewable Energy

Prospects for Implementation
1. Auflage 2013
ISBN: 978-1-4832-5695-5
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 272 Seiten

Renewable Energy: Prospects for Implementation contains papers that were originally commissioned by the journal Energy Policy for a series on renewable energy appearing between January 1991 to September 1992. In view of the fast-changing demands on conventional energy supply to meet environmental imperatives, it seemed timely to reproduce here a selection of those papers with a new introduction and a revised concluding chapter by the Editor of the series, Dr Tim Jackson, a research fellow with the Stockholm Environment Institute. The book is organized into four parts. The papers in Part I cover the individual renewable energy technology types from a broad perspective, addressing the technological aspects of improved power capture and conversion efficiency, but also providing a broad overview of costs, environmental aspects, and institutional factors for each technology category. Part II of this collection examines questions of feasibility and system integration. Renewables and development is the theme of Part III of the book while Part IV is dedicated to policy aspect and the development of strategies for implementation of renewable energy technologies.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Jackson, Tim

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Renewable Energy: Prospects for Implementation;2
3;Copyright Page;3
4;Table of Contents;4
5;Preface;6
6;Editor's Introduction;8
7;Acknowledgements;14
8;Part I: Renewable Energy Technologies;16
8.1;Chapter 1. The Cinderella options;16
8.1.1;A study of modernized renewable energy technologies Part 1 – A technical assessment;16
8.1.2;The renewable resource base;18
8.1.3;Wind energy in the UK;19
8.1.4;Technical lessons from the case study;22
8.1.5;Other technologies;24
8.1.6;Other countries;29
8.1.7;Markets and competing prices;30
8.1.8;Technical prospects: conclusions;31
8.2;Chapter 2. Biomass Energy;34
8.2.1;BIOMASS RESOURCES;39
8.2.2;CONVERSION AND END PRODUCTS;44
8.2.3;CASE STUDIES – SUCCESSES AND FAILURES;44
8.2.4;ECONOMICS;45
8.2.5;ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;53
8.2.6;SOCIAL ISSUES;55
8.2.7;CONCLUSIONS;57
8.3;Chapter 3. Solar Energy Systems;62
8.3.1;THEORETICAL POTENTIAL OF SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS;63
8.3.2;CONCEPTS FOR SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION;64
8.3.3;TECHNICAL POTENTIAL AND INSTALLED CAPACITY OF SOLAR SYSTEMS;66
8.3.4;ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS;68
8.3.5;SOLAR-ASSISTED OPERATION OF CONVENTIONAL POWER PLANTS;70
8.3.6;STORAGE OF SOLAR ENERGY;71
8.3.7;COSTS OF SOLAR ENERGY;72
8.3.8;PERSPECTIVES FOR COST REDUCTION OF SOLAR POWER PLANTS;73
8.3.9;CONCLUSION;74
8.4;Chapter 4. Wind Energy;76
8.4.1;THE CALIFORNIA EXPERIENCE;76
8.4.2;THE DANISH EXPERIENCE;79
8.4.3;PRODUCTIVITY;80
8.4.4;COST OF WIND GENERATION;81
8.4.5;POTENTIAL FOR WIND IN THE USA;85
8.4.6;CONCLUSION;86
8.5;Chapter 5. Ocean Wave Energy;88
8.5.1;DIVERSITY OF WAVE-ENERGY CONVERTERS;88
8.5.2;THE NATURE OF WAVE ENERGY;90
8.5.3;COST ESTIMATES AND PRESENT TECHNOLOGY STATE;90
8.5.4;FUTURE PROSPECTS;92
8.5.5;POWER FROM WAVES TO THE ELECTRIC GRID;93
8.5.6;ENVIRONMENTAL CONFLICTS WITH EXISTING ACTIVITIES;93
8.5.7;POLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND CHALLENGES;94
8.5.8;INSTITUTIONAL INERTIA AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS;94
8.5.9;CONCLUSION;95
8.6;Chapter 6. Hydroelectric Energy;96
8.6.1;RESTRAINTS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROPOWER;99
8.6.2;TECHNICAL INNOVATIONS;101
8.6.3;INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS;103
8.6.4;CONCLUDING REMARKS;105
8.7;Chapter 7. Tidal Energy;108
8.7.1;OPERATION;108
8.7.2;COMPONENTS OF A BARRAGE;108
8.7.3;THE RESOURCE;109
8.7.4;PROSPECTS IN THE UK;110
8.7.5;ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS;112
8.7.6;CONCLUSIONS;112
8.8;Chapter 8. Geothermal Energy;114
8.8.1;ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS;114
8.8.2;ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND CONTROLS;117
8.8.3;COSTS AND INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS;121
8.8.4;GEOTHERMAL PROSPECTS;122
8.8.5;CONCLUSION;122
9;Part II: Feasibility and System Integration;124
9.1;Chapter 9. Energy Analysis of Renewable Energy Sources;124
9.1.1;Conventions of energy analysis;124
9.1.2;Applications of energy analysis;125
9.1.3;Energy analysis and economics;126
9.1.4;Summary of results;127
9.1.5;Future prospects for energy analysis;131
9.2;Chapter 10. Integration of Renewable Electricity Sources;136
9.2.1;Isolated supplies and small systems;137
9.2.2;System operation and the role of different plant types;138
9.2.3;The capacity question;142
9.2.4;Fuel saving: determining factors;143
9.2.5;Interfacing, transmission, and interconnection;147
9.2.6;Combining different renewable sources;148
9.2.7;Long-term trends and capabilities of supply systems;149
9.2.8;Conclusions;150
9.2.9;Appendix 1: The impact of geographical diversity;152
9.2.10;Appendix 2: Capacity credit from variable power sources;153
9.3;Chapter 11. Solar Hydrogen Energy Trade;156
10;Part III: Renewables and Development;166
10.1;Chapter 13. Renewable Energy in Rural Areas of Developing Countries;178
10.1.1;CAUSES AND IMPACTS OF THE RURAL ENERGY CRISIS;179
10.1.2;POSTULATES FOR ENERGY PLANNING;180
10.1.3;TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE ENERGY STRATEGY;181
10.1.4;CONCLUSIONS;184
10.2;Chapter 14. Renewed Prosperity for the Country Boats of Bangladesh;186
10.2.1;The traditional role of country boats;186
10.2.2;Changing times and increasing poverty;187
10.2.3;The renewable energy solution;187
10.2.4;The rise of diesel engines;188
10.2.5;Economic benefits;189
10.2.6;Energy considerations;190
10.2.7;Conclusions;192
10.3;Chapter 15. Renewable Energy in Third World Development Assistance;194
10.3.1;THE ENERGY EVENTS OF THE 1970s;194
10.3.2;A CATALOGUE OF DISAPPOINTMENTS;195
10.3.3;UNDERSTANDING WHAT WENT WRONG;199
10.3.4;RENEWABLES IN THE ENERGY ASSISTANCE OF THE 1990s;201
10.3.5;CONCLUSION;202
10.4;Chapter 12. Biomass Energy;166
10.5;Economics and policy;167
10.6;Brazil case study: ethanol from sugarcane;168
10.7;Zimbabwe: the Triangle Ethanol Plant;172
10.8;The Pura village biogas project in India;174
10.9;The Baringo project in Kenya;175
10.10;Conclusions;176
11;Part IV: Strategies for Implementation;204
11.1;Chapter 16. Policies for a Solar Economy;204
11.1.1;A NEW START FOR ENERGY POLICY;205
11.1.2;A POLICY AGENDA;206
11.1.3;CONCLUSIONS;213
11.2;Chapter 17. Renewables and the Full Costs of Energy;216
11.2.1;COSTS TO BE CONSIDERED;216
11.2.2;SOCIAL COSTS TO BE CONSIDERED;217
11.2.3;EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE ON SOCIAL COSTS;217
11.2.4;AGGREGATED RESULTS AND COMPARISON OF SOCIAL COSTS;218
11.2.5;EFFECT OF SOCIAL COSTS ON THE COMPETITIVE SITUATION AND MARKET DIFFUSION OF RENEWABLES;220
11.2.6;CONCLUSIONS ON THE REAL COSTS OF ENERGY;222
11.3;Chapter 18. Renewables and the Privatization of the UK ESI;228
11.3.1;THE NEW TECHNOLOGIES;228
11.3.2;RENEWABLE ECONOMICS AND THE1990 EC RULING;230
11.3.3;THE 1990 NFFO;231
11.3.4;THE 1991 NFFO AND BEYOND;232
11.3.5;ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES;234
11.3.6;UK OPTIONS;236
11.3.7;ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS;237
11.3.8;CONCLUSION;237
11.4;Chapter 19. The Cinderella Options;240
11.4.1;A study of modernized renewable energy technologies Part 2 – Political and policy analysis;240
11.4.2;The track record;240
11.4.3;Data gaps;241
11.4.4;Analytic conservativism;242
11.4.5;Transfer ignorance;243
11.4.6;Failures of vision;244
11.4.7;Whither the debate?;245
11.4.8;Removing market obstacles;247
11.4.9;Research and development;248
11.4.10;Supporting the deployment of renewable sources;250
11.4.11;Institutional reforms;251
11.4.12;Conclusions;252
11.4.13;Postscript;254
11.5;Chapter 20. Summary and Conclusions;256
11.5.1;THE QUESTION OF POTENTIAL;257
11.5.2;ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT;262
11.5.3;POLICY CONSIDERATIONS;266
11.5.4;INSTITUTIONS AND ECONOMICS;267
11.5.5;RENEWABLES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES;271
11.5.6;CONCLUSIONS;272

Leseproben

Chapter 1

The Cinderella options

A study of modernized renewable energy technologies Part 1 – A technical assessment

M.J. Grubb,     Dr Michael Grubb is director of Energy and Environment Programme of the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 10 St James’s Square, London SW1Y 4LE, UK, and is UK representative on the Renewable Energy Committee of the World Energy Council.

This paper examines the status of and prospects for renewable energy technologies. Wind energy is taken as an example of the negative myths which impede renewable energy developments. The paper then emphasises the great diversity in renewables: different technologies are at very different stages of development, and are suited to different countries, locations and applications. Further technology development is very important, but nevertheless it is argued that the prospects for obtaining large-scale renewable supplies are good, especially in the industrialised countries. Sufficient evidence exists for renewables to be taken much more seriously in energy scenarios and policy developments.

Keywords

Renewable energy

Energy policy process

Supply

Renewable energy is an enigma. Everyone is in favour of it, but few take it seriously. Most agree that renewable energy research deserves more money, but the funding remains small compared with much more speculative technologies such as nuclear fusion. Renewable energy is praised for its environmental advantages, whilst environmental objections are raised increasingly as the major constraint.

There are two main attitudes towards the prospects for and importance of non-hydro renewable energy. One, widely expressed throughout the environmental community, is that in the long run renewable energy will save us all from the unsustainable consequences of relying upon fossil fuels and nuclear power. The Brundtland Commission echoed this in stating that renewable energy ‘should form the foundation of the global energy structure during the 21st Century’.1

The other common attitude is that in the short to medium time horizon relevant to the real world of industrial and political policy formation and investment, non-hydro renewable sources are essentially irrelevant: that for the foreseeable future their contribution will remain marginal. This attitude is reflected in the levels of research, development and demonstration (RD&D) funding, with expenditure on the best supported of renewable technologies being a small fraction of direct government expenditure on fossil and nuclear sources (see Figure 1) and an even smaller component of total public support (see Figure 2).2 It is apparent in the institutional balance, with the major international institutions devoted to nuclear power having no counterparts for renewable energy.3 It is evident in the absence of renewable energy from general energy policy development – to take but two examples, the EC documents discussing the projected internal energy market,4 and the original draft proposals for electricity privatization in the UK.5 Above all, it is demonstrated by mainstream energy forecasts, which in almost every OECD country project non-hydro renewable energy contributions still at a few per cent of supply decades into the next century.

Figure 1 Total IEA direct government RD&D expenditure (1988 US$m).

Figure 2 Total UK public sector expenditure on energy RD&D (1985–86 £m).
Hatched areas = spending by nationalized industry
Remainder = direct government expenditure
Others: wave, geothermal aquifer, solar, biomass, tide, hydro/general, ETSU services.

Taken together, these two attitudes suggest that one day the world must run on renewable energy, but that the timescale on which it will even begin to make a significant contribution is not foreseeable. This is unfortunate. It is also wrong.

Currently, renewable energy sources probably account for somewhat over 20% of primary world energy supplies (input equivalents), this being dominated by biomass (14%)6 and hydro (6.7%).7 The contributions from passive solar drying and heating are significant but these are generally considered as incidental gains. Active solar water heating is very important in some countries in displacing commercial fuels,8 and photovoltaics and wind make significant contributions in special markets, eg for communications and pumping. For none of these applications are useful statistics available.

Biomass use is dominated by non-commercial fuels for open-hearth combustion, especially in developing countries, a use which cannot expand much further. Large-scale hydro is an established form of centralized power production, with probably limited scope for further developments in industrial countries because of environmental constraints. This paper concentrates upon the prospects for commercial non-hydro renewable sources using modern technologies, from which contributions are currently very small.

Despite this, it is argued that non-hydro renewable energy technologies can no longer be relegated to the backwaters of the industrial and policy process: a number are already sufficiently developed and commercially attractive, or soon will be, and their impact could be swift and substantial. Yet the opposite extreme does not hold either: non-renewable energy will remain important throughout the next century, and attempts to promote visions of a world run entirely on renewables are misguided and ultimately damaging.

The paper is divided into two parts. Part 1 assesses the technical prospects for renewable energy, based on resource constraints, known technology and reasonable technological expectations, with minimal attention to its current market situation and majority expectations. Part 2 (Chapter 19 in this volume) then considers the current situation, analyses the reasons for various attitudes towards renewable energy sources, and outlines a number of policy issues. The paper concludes that a revolution of attitudes towards renewable energy in the policy communities of industrial countries is required and is indeed inevitable in time. The speed and impact of the transition will depend largely upon policies adopted over the next decade. The aftermath of the process will not be a panacea for all our energy ills, but a situation in which the large economic potential for renewable energy sources is accepted, with recognition of both benefits and drawbacks: a situation, in other words, in which they are treated on a par with conventional sources as a central component of broadly sustainable energy economies.

The renewable resource base

Renewable energy flows are illustrated in Figure 3.9 The rate of solar input is nearly 20 000 times human energy consumption. Of this, 30% is immediately reflected and nearly half is converted directly to heat and re-radiated as infra-red radiation. The great majority of the rest is taken up in the hydrological cycle, and the tiny fraction of this which falls as rain or snow over high ground and can be captured in runoff forms the hydro resource, estimated at 10–30% of current world energy use.10 The atmospheric heat gradients drive the winds, which dissipate power at about 40 times the rate of human energy consumption; the amount converted to waves is roughly equal to human consumption. Finally, some 3 500 EJ/year – some nine times human consumption – is absorbed in photosynthesis every year.11 To this list, in principle, should be added the very large ocean resources arising from heat gradients and ocean streams, the osmotic resource arising from the differing salt content of river and sea water, and the vapour pressure resources from the heating of desert air.

Figure 3 Global renewable energy flows (units TW 1012W; commercial energy consumption = 10.5 TW). Twidell and Weir, Ref 9; (data for photosynthesis amended from ref 11).

The solar resource represents the maximum physical energy available. This is not the case for tidal and geothermal energy.12 Tidal energy schemes work by increasing the dissipation of tidal energy at shorelines, so the natural rate of dissipation – the number in Figure 3 – does not represent the theoretical limit. Geothermal energy similarly does not rely on the natural heat flow, but generally extracts heat which has accumulated over centuries in water (aquifers) or hot rocks as a result of tidal friction and natural radioactive decay, and extracts it much faster than it can be replaced.

Consequently geothermal energy is not a renewable source, although it is usually included as such. It is most easily exploited from aquifers, but the resource is probably fairly small.13 Pressurized brines, at greater depth, present a largely unknown resource. The theoretical resource from tapping hot rocks or even magmas is essentially infinite – the heat contained in the top few kilometres of rock worldwide is larger even than world uranium reserves exploited with breeder reactors – but only a very small portion of this could conceivably be tapped. For these, the technical and resource characteristics are too uncertain to allow more meaningful...