Lappan / Whittaker The Gibbons

New Perspectives on Small Ape Socioecology and Population Biology
1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-0-387-88604-6
Verlag: Springer US
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 518 Seiten

Reihe: Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects

It is a great honor to be asked to introduce this exciting new volume, having been heavily involved in the first comprehensive synthesis in the early 1980s. Gibbons are the most enthralling of primates. On the one hand, they are the most appealing animals, with their upright posture and body shape, facial markings, dramatic arm-swinging locomotion and suspensory postures, and devastating duets; on the other hand, the small apes are the most diverse, hence biologically valuable and informative, of our closest relatives. It is hard for me to believe that it is 40 years to the month since I first set foot on the Malay Peninsula to start my doctoral study of the siamang. I am very proud to have followed in the footsteps of the great pioneer of primate field study, Clarence Ray Carpenter (CR or Ray, who I was fortunate to meet twice, in Pennsylvania and in Zurich), first in Central America (in 1967) and then in Southeast Asia. It is 75 years since he studied howler monkeys on Barro Colorado Island in the Panama Canal Zone. It is 70 years since he studied the white-handed gibbon in Thailand.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Whittaker, Danielle

Lappan, Susan

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;THE GIBBONS;2
1.1;Foreword;6
1.2;Acknowledgments;9
1.3;Contents;10
1.4;Contributors;13
2;Part 1: Introduction;17
2.1;The Diversity of Small Apes and the Importance of Population-Level Studies;18
2.1.1;Gibbon Diversity;19
2.1.2;Gibbon Socioecology: Flexibility;20
2.1.3;The Limits of Flexibility;22
2.1.4;The True Neglected Apes?;23
2.1.5;References;24
3;Part 2: Biogeography;26
3.1;Evolutionary Relationships Among the Gibbons: A Biogeographic Perspective;27
3.1.1;Introduction;27
3.1.2;Taxonomy;27
3.1.3;Geographic Distributions;31
3.1.4;Phylogenetic Inter-relationships;36
3.1.5;Biogeography;40
3.1.5.1;Paleontological Record of Gibbons;40
3.1.5.2;Paleoenvironmental History of Southeast Asia;41
3.1.5.3;The Radiation of Gibbons in Southeast Asia;44
3.1.6;Conclusions;46
3.1.7;References;46
3.2;Genetic Differentiation of Agile Gibbons Between Sumatra and Kalimantan in Indonesia;51
3.2.1;Introduction;51
3.2.2;Samples and Identification;52
3.2.3;Chromosomes;54
3.2.4;DNA Analyses;57
3.2.5;Discussion;59
3.2.6;References;62
3.3;Vocal Diversity of Kloss’s Gibbons (Hylobates Klossii) in the Mentawai Islands, Indonesia;64
3.3.1;Introduction;64
3.3.2;Materials and Methods;66
3.3.2.1;Field Methods;66
3.3.2.2;Data Collection;67
3.3.2.3;Kloss’s Gibbon Song Structure;67
3.3.2.3.1;Male Song Structure;68
3.3.2.3.2;Female Song Structure;68
3.3.2.4;Sample Size of Tape-Recorded Gibbon Songs;69
3.3.2.5;Acoustic Analysis;70
3.3.2.6;Statistical Analysis;70
3.3.2.6.1;Discriminant Function Analysis;70
3.3.2.6.2;Multidimensional Scaling;71
3.3.3;Results;71
3.3.3.1;Discriminant Function Analysis;71
3.3.3.2;Multidimensional Scaling;75
3.3.3.3;Vocal Versus Geographic Distance;75
3.3.4;Discussion;77
3.3.5;Appendix: List of Vocal Variables;80
3.3.5.1;Trill Phrase of the Male;80
3.3.5.2;Great Call Phrase of the Female;81
3.3.6;References;81
3.4;Phylogeography of Kloss’s Gibbon (Hylobates Klossii) Populations and Implications for Conservation Planning in the Mentawai Islands;85
3.4.1;Introduction;85
3.4.2;Methods;87
3.4.2.1;Sampling;87
3.4.2.2;DNA Sequencing;88
3.4.2.3;Phylogenetic Inference;88
3.4.2.4;Phylogenetic Species Concept;89
3.4.2.5;Population Genetics;90
3.4.3;Results;90
3.4.4;Discussion;94
3.4.4.1;Recent Gene Flow;95
3.4.4.2;Historical Gene Flow;96
3.4.4.3;Incomplete Lineage Sorting;96
3.4.4.4;Implications for the Other Mentawai Primates;96
3.4.5;Conservation Planning;97
3.4.6;References;98
3.5;Individual and Geographical Variability in the Songs of Wild Silvery Gibbons (Hylobates Moloch) on Java, Indonesia;102
3.5.1;Introduction;102
3.5.2;Methods;105
3.5.2.1;Study Animals;105
3.5.2.2;Recording and Analysis Equipment;105
3.5.2.3;Acoustic Analysis;105
3.5.2.4;Statistics;109
3.5.3;Results;110
3.5.3.1;Variability Within and Between Individuals;110
3.5.3.2;Variability Between Populations;113
3.5.3.3;Possible Taxonomic Boundary;115
3.5.4;Discussion;115
3.5.5;Conclusions;117
3.5.6;References;117
3.6;The Fossil Record of Gibbons;122
3.6.1;The Nature of the Fossil Record of Gibbons and Gibbon-Like Primates;123
3.6.2;The Distribution of Fossil Gibbons in Relation to Changing Sea Levels and Landforms;124
3.6.3;Life History, Diet, and the Evolution of Gibbons;134
3.6.4;Summary and Conclusions;137
3.6.5;References;138
4;Part 3: Diet and Community Ecology;142
4.1;Hylobatid Diets Revisited: The Importance of Body Mass, Fruit Availability, and Interspecific Competition;143
4.1.1;Introduction;143
4.1.1.1;Hylobatid Ecology;143
4.1.1.2;The Effects of Body Mass on Hylobatid Energetics;144
4.1.1.3;Competition Between Hylobatid Species;144
4.1.1.4;New Ways to Understand Hylobatid Diets;146
4.1.2;Methods;148
4.1.2.1;Data Collection;148
4.1.2.2;Statistical Analyses;149
4.1.2.2.1;Descriptive Statistics and Mann-Whitney U tests;149
4.1.2.2.2;Regression Analyses;149
4.1.2.2.3;Discriminant Function Analyses;151
4.1.3;Results;151
4.1.3.1;How Folivorous Are Siamangs Relative to All Other Hylobatids?;151
4.1.3.2;How Well Is Folivory Linked to Body Mass in Gibbons?;153
4.1.3.3;How Do the Diets of Small-Bodied Gibbons Compare When Living Sympatrically vs. Allopatrically with Siamangs?;155
4.1.3.4;What Is the Relationship Between Resource Availability and Hylobatid Diets?;155
4.1.3.5;What Is the Impact of Interspecific Competition on Gibbon Diets?;158
4.1.4;Discussion;160
4.1.4.1;Siamangs Are as Folivorous as Other Hylobatids;160
4.1.4.2;Folivory Is Poorly Linked to Body Mass in Gibbons;161
4.1.4.3;Small-Bodied Gibbons Living Sympatrically vs. Allopatrically with Siamangs Do Not Differ in Diet and Interspecific Competition Does Not Significantly Impact Gibbon Diets;162
4.1.4.4;There Is a Significant Relationship Between Resource Availability and Hylobatid Diets;163
4.1.4.5;Morphological Consequences of Large Body Size;163
4.1.5;Conclusions and Future Perspectives;164
4.1.5.1;Other Modes of Niche Segregation;164
4.1.5.2;Gibbons Within the Larger Southeast Asian Community;165
4.1.6;References;166
4.2;Competition and Niche Overlap Between Gibbons (Hylobates albibarbis) and Other Frugivorous Vertebrates in Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia;170
4.2.1;Introduction;170
4.2.1.1;How Specialized Are Gibbon Diets?;171
4.2.1.2;Which Taxa Are the Major Competitors of Gibbons?;172
4.2.1.3;How Similar Are the Feeding Niches of Gibbons and Their Major Competitors?;173
4.2.2;Methods;175
4.2.2.1;Study Site and Subjects;175
4.2.2.1.1;Vertebrate Feeding Observations;175
4.2.2.1.2;Fruit Phenology;177
4.2.2.1.3;Primate Density Transects;177
4.2.2.1.4;Analyses;178
4.2.3;Results;179
4.2.3.1;How Specialized Are Gibbon Diets?;179
4.2.3.2;Which Taxa Are the Major Competitors of Gibbons?;182
4.2.3.3;How Similar Are the Niches of Gibbons and Their Major Competitors?;185
4.2.4;Discussion;187
4.2.4.1;How Specialized Are Gibbon Diets?;188
4.2.4.2;Which Taxa Are the Major Competitors of Gibbons?;190
4.2.4.3;How Similar Are the Niches of Gibbons and Their Major Competitors?;190
4.2.5;References;192
4.3;The Seed Dispersal Niche of Gibbons in Bornean Dipterocarp Forests;198
4.3.1;Introduction;198
4.3.2;Methods;199
4.3.2.1;Study Area and Gibbon Groups;199
4.3.2.2;Bornean Frugivores;200
4.3.3;Quantity: Selection of Food Plants;201
4.3.3.1;General Fruit Types;202
4.3.3.2;Patch Size;206
4.3.4;Quality: Primary Seed Shadow and Post-Dispersal Processes;207
4.3.4.1;How Seeds Are Deposited;207
4.3.4.2;Where Seeds Are Deposited;209
4.3.5;What Is the Seed Dispersal Niche of Gibbons?;210
4.3.6;Appendix;212
4.3.7;References;213
5;Part 4: The Relationship Between Ecology and Social Organization;217
5.1;Ecology and the Social System of Gibbons;218
5.1.1;Introduction;218
5.1.2;Grades of Explanation;220
5.1.2.1;Ecological Explanations;220
5.1.2.2;Caring for Young: Parental Investment Theory;220
5.1.2.3;Mate Competition Theories and the Trivers-Wrangham Model;221
5.1.2.4;Guarding Mates and Young;222
5.1.3;Gibbon Ecology and Foraging;222
5.1.3.1;Foraging and Food Patch Size;223
5.1.3.2;Knowledge of the Territory;223
5.1.4;Parental Investment Theory;227
5.1.4.1;Types of Investment;227
5.1.4.1.1;Territorial Resource Defense;228
5.1.4.1.2;Guarding Against Predators;230
5.1.4.1.3;Grooming;230
5.1.4.1.4;Play;231
5.1.4.1.5;Infant Carrying;231
5.1.4.1.6;Protection Against Infanticide;231
5.1.4.2;Is Territorial Defense Mate- or Infant-Guarding?;232
5.1.4.3;Evidence for Resource Territoriality;234
5.1.5;Mate Competition Theory;235
5.1.5.1;Asymmetry of Parental Investment and Mate Competition;235
5.1.5.2;Are Female Mates ‘‘Resources’’?;236
5.1.5.3;Territoriality and Resource Competition in Males and Females;237
5.1.5.4;Can Mate-Guarding by Males Promote Monogamy?;238
5.1.6;Unanswered Questions;239
5.1.6.1;What Is Territorial Behavior?;239
5.1.6.2;Is Food Limiting?;239
5.1.6.3;Does Territoriality Increase Feeding Efficiency?;240
5.1.7;Conclusions;240
5.1.8;References;241
5.2;The Ecology and Evolution of Hylobatid Communities: Causal and Contextual Factors Underlying Inter- and Intraspecific Variation;247
5.2.1;Introduction;247
5.2.2;Ecological Bases for Variation and Flexibility;250
5.2.2.1;Distribution and Habitat Characteristics;250
5.2.2.2;Patterns of Resource Use;251
5.2.3;Examples of Variation Among the Four Hylobatid Genera;252
5.2.3.1;Hylobates;252
5.2.3.2;Symphalangus;255
5.2.3.3;Nomascus;256
5.2.3.4;Hoolock;257
5.2.3.5;Comparison Between Genera: Hylobates and Symphalangus;258
5.2.4;From Ecological Variation to Variable Social Organization;259
5.2.5;Human Impacts, Social Organization, and Population Viability;260
5.2.6;Conclusion;264
5.2.7;References;265
5.3;Seasonal Home Range Use and Defendability in White-Handed Gibbons (Hylobates lar) in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand;271
5.3.1;Introduction;271
5.3.2;Methods;272
5.3.2.1;Study Site and Animals;272
5.3.2.2;Resource Abundance and Rainfall;272
5.3.2.3;Behavioral Data Collection;273
5.3.2.4;Data Analysis;273
5.3.3;Results;274
5.3.3.1;Resource Abundance and Rainfall;274
5.3.3.2;DPL and Home Range Size;275
5.3.3.3;Defendability;277
5.3.4;Discussion;277
5.3.4.1;Variation in DPL;277
5.3.4.2;Defendability;277
5.3.4.3;Maximum Number of Defendable Females;278
5.3.5;References;280
6;Part 5: Mating Systems and Reproduction;282
6.1;Monogamy in Mammals: Expanding the Perspective on Hylobatid Mating Systems;283
6.1.1;Introduction;283
6.1.2;Definition of Monogamy;284
6.1.3;Incidence of EPC and EPP;290
6.1.4;Proximate Mechanisms Maintaining Monogamy;293
6.1.5;Ultimate Causation;294
6.1.5.1;Paternal Care;295
6.1.5.2;Ecology;298
6.1.5.3;Infanticide;300
6.1.5.4;Other Factors;300
6.1.6;Social Structure and Mating Patterns;301
6.1.6.1;Flexible Grouping and Mating;301
6.1.6.2;Relatedness Within Groups;304
6.1.6.3;Broader Social Networks;304
6.1.7;Future Directions;305
6.1.8;Appendix;306
6.1.9;References;309
6.2;Monitoring Female Reproductive Status in White-Handed Gibbons (Hylobates lar) Using Fecal Hormone Analysis and Patterns of Genital Skin Swellings;316
6.2.1;Introduction;316
6.2.2;Methods;317
6.2.2.1;Subjects and Study Sites;317
6.2.2.2;Fecal Sample Collection;318
6.2.2.3;Hormone Analysis;319
6.2.2.4;Genital Swelling Score;319
6.2.3;Results;321
6.2.3.1;Hormone Profiles and Concentrations in Relation to Female Reproductive Status;321
6.2.3.2;Changes in Genital Skin Swelling;323
6.2.3.3;Effect of Storage Procedure on Hormone Concentrations;324
6.2.4;Discussion;324
6.2.5;References;327
6.3;Patterns of Infant Care in Wild Siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus) in Southern Sumatra;329
6.3.1;Introduction;329
6.3.2;Methods;331
6.3.2.1;Study Site and Animals;331
6.3.2.2;Behavioral Data Collection and Analysis;332
6.3.3;Results;333
6.3.3.1;Lactation;333
6.3.3.2;Female Time Spent Carrying Infants Declined Consistently Over Time;334
6.3.3.3;Male Time Spent Carrying Infants Varied Between Groups and Individuals;335
6.3.3.4;Adults Spent Little Time in Social Play with Infants;336
6.3.3.5;Adults Spent Little Time Grooming Infants;337
6.3.3.6;Female Time in Close Proximity with Infants Declined Over Time;337
6.3.3.7;Some Males Spent Most of Their Time in Close Proximity with Older Infants, Even When Not Directly Providing Care;338
6.3.3.8;Infants in Polyandrous Groups Received Less Male Care than Infants in Monogamous Groups;339
6.3.3.9;All Study Infants Survived at Least Two Years;339
6.3.4;Discussion;340
6.3.5;References;343
6.4;The Social Organization and Mating System of Khao Yai White-Handed Gibbons: 1992-2006;348
6.4.1;Introduction;348
6.4.1.1;The Flexible Social Organization of Khao Yai Gibbons;351
6.4.1.1.1;Mo Singto - Klong E-Tau Study Site;351
6.4.1.1.2;Mixed Species Groups;352
6.4.1.1.3;Social Groups;354
6.4.1.1.4;Data Collection;354
6.4.1.1.5;Individual Recognition;355
6.4.1.1.6;Field Key to Identify Social Groups and Solitary Individuals;355
6.4.1.1.7;Social Organizations in Khao Yai gibbons;357
6.4.1.2;The Variable Mating System of Khao Yai Gibbons;358
6.4.1.2.1;Sexual Behavior Data Collection;358
6.4.1.2.2;The Data Set of Adult, Sexually Active Gibbons in the Population;360
6.4.1.2.3;Mating Strategies of Khao Yai Females and Males;363
6.4.1.2.4;Variable Social Organization and Mating System in Khao Yai Gibbons;364
6.4.1.3;Multimale Polyandry, Resource Distribution and Territorial/Female Defense;369
6.4.1.4;Sociosexual Flexibility and Advanced Cognitive Abilities;371
6.4.2;Appendix 1: Multimale Single-Female Groups;373
6.4.3;Appendix 2: Multimale Single-Female Group ‘‘A’’;375
6.4.4;Appendix 3: Multifemale Single-Male Group ‘‘J’’;376
6.4.5;Appendix 4: Mixed-Species Multimale Multifemale Group ‘‘E’’;377
6.4.6;References;378
7;Part 6: Conservation Biology;386
7.1;Status and Conservation of Yellow-Cheeked Crested Gibbons (Nomascus gabriellae) in the Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area, Mondulkiri Province, Cambodia;387
7.1.1;Introduction;387
7.1.2;Methods;388
7.1.2.1;Study Site;388
7.1.2.2;Intensive Study Plots;390
7.1.2.3;Site Population Trends;391
7.1.2.4;Site Population Estimates;392
7.1.3;Results;394
7.1.3.1;Intensive Study Plots;394
7.1.3.1.1;Timing of Duets;394
7.1.3.1.2;Seasonality and Weather Conditions;395
7.1.3.1.3;Calling Probability;397
7.1.3.2;Site Population Estimates and Trends;397
7.1.3.2.1;Population Trends;397
7.1.3.2.2;Population Estimates from Listening Posts;397
7.1.3.2.3;Population Estimates from Line Transects;399
7.1.4;Discussion;399
7.1.4.1;Vocal Behavior;399
7.1.4.2;Habitat Requirements;400
7.1.4.3;Site Population Trends;402
7.1.4.4;Site Population Estimates;403
7.1.5;References;405
7.2;The Distribution and Abundance of Hoolock Gibbons in India;409
7.2.1;Introduction;409
7.2.1.1;Distribution of the Western Species (H. hoolock);409
7.2.1.2;Distribution of the Eastern Species, H. leuconedys;410
7.2.1.3;Status of Hoolock Gibbons;411
7.2.2;Methods;412
7.2.2.1;Direct Sightings;412
7.2.2.2;Indirect Methods;412
7.2.2.3;Survey Area;413
7.2.2.4;Estimation of Population Size;413
7.2.3;Results;415
7.2.3.1;The Distribution of Hoolock Gibbons in Protected Areas;415
7.2.3.2;Distribution of the Western Species Outside the PAs;416
7.2.3.3;First Possible Record of the Eastern Species in India;416
7.2.3.4;Altitudinal Distribution;421
7.2.3.5;Group Size and Composition;421
7.2.3.6;Population Estimates for the Western Hoolock Gibbon in the State of Assam;422
7.2.3.7;Priority Conservation Landscapes in Assam;423
7.2.4;Discussion;423
7.2.5;Appendix;426
7.2.6;References;432
7.3;Census of Eastern Hoolock Gibbons (Hoolock leuconedys) in Mahamyaing Wildlife Sanctuary, Sagaing Division, Myanmar;434
7.3.1;Introduction;434
7.3.2;Hoolock Gibbons and Protected Areas in Myanmar;435
7.3.3;Study Area;438
7.3.4;Methods;438
7.3.4.1;Workshop and Training Exercises;438
7.3.4.2;Census Methods;440
7.3.4.3;Mapping and Density Determination;440
7.3.4.4;Assessment of Forest Condition;442
7.3.5;Results;442
7.3.5.1;Density of Groups;442
7.3.5.2;Mean Group Size;444
7.3.5.3;Gibbon Population Size;444
7.3.5.4;Forest Canopy in 1-ha Plots;445
7.3.5.5;Relationship Between Density and Forest Condition;445
7.3.6;Discussion;447
7.3.7;Conclusions and Recommendations;448
7.3.8;References;449
7.4;The Population Distribution and Abundance of Siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus) and Agile Gibbons (Hylobates agilis) in West Central Sumatra, Indonesia;451
7.4.1;Introduction;451
7.4.2;Study Sites and Methods;452
7.4.2.1;Study Sites;452
7.4.2.2;Methods;454
7.4.3;Results;455
7.4.3.1;Detection Distance and Estimated Strip Width (ESW);455
7.4.3.1.1;Maximum Reliable Animal-to-Trail or Perpendicular Distance;455
7.4.3.1.2;Maximum Reliable Animal-to-Observer or Direct Distance;455
7.4.3.2;Siamang and Agile Gibbon Densities;456
7.4.3.3;The Distribution of Gibbons in and around KSNP;456
7.4.3.4;Gibbon Group Sizes;457
7.4.3.5;Biomass of Gibbons;459
7.4.4;Discussion;459
7.4.5;Main Conclusions;461
7.4.6;References;462
7.5;Canopy Bridges: An Effective Conservation Tactic for Supporting Gibbon Populations in Forest Fragments;464
7.5.1;Introduction;464
7.5.2;Methods;465
7.5.2.1;Study Area;465
7.5.2.2;Hoolock Activity Budgets and Diets at Borajan;467
7.5.2.3;Hoolock Ranging Behavior at Borajan Prior to the Construction of Canopy Bridges;467
7.5.2.4;Placement of Canopy Bridges;469
7.5.3;Results;469
7.5.3.1;Use of Canopy Bridges;469
7.5.4;Discussion;470
7.5.5;References;472
7.6;The Role of Reintroduction in Gibbon Conservation: Opportunities and Challenges;473
7.6.1;Introduction;473
7.6.2;Rehabilitation and Reintroduction;475
7.6.3;Global Outlook on Rehabilitation;475
7.6.3.1;Determining the Success of Reintroduction;476
7.6.4;Primate Case Studies;476
7.6.5;Why Is Rehabilitation of Gibbons so Difficult?;479
7.6.6;Wild vs Rehabilitant Gibbons: The Resource Allocation Dilemma;480
7.6.7;Avoiding the Problems of the Past;481
7.6.7.1;Behavioral Assessment Prior to Release;482
7.6.7.2;Selecting a Suitable Site for Release;483
7.6.7.3;Post-Release Monitoring;485
7.6.8;Discussion;487
7.6.9;Summary and Conclusions;487
7.6.10;References;489
7.7;Saving the Small Apes: Conservation Assessment of Gibbon Species at the 2006 Asian Primate Red List Workshop;493
7.7.1;References;495
8;Index;496