Narayan Biomedical Materials

1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-0-387-84872-3
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 573 Seiten

Biomedical Materials provides a comprehensive discussion of contemporary biomaterials research and development. Highlighting important topics associated with Engineering, Medicine and Surgery, this volume reaches a wide scope of professionals, researchers and graduate students involved with biomaterials. A pedagogical writing style and structure provides readers with an understanding of the fundamental concepts necessary to pursue research and industrial work on biomaterials, including characteristics of biomaterials, biological processes, biocompatibility, and applications of biomaterials in implants and medical instruments. Written by leading researchers in the field, this text book takes readers to the forefront of biomedical materials development, providing them with a taste of how the field is changing, while also serving as a useful reference to physicians and engineers.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Narayan, Roger

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;A Historical Perspective on the Developmentof Biomedical Materials;5
2;Contents;8
3;Contributors;19
4;Part I The Fundamental Properties of the Materials Usedin Medicine and Dentistry;22
4.1;1 Ceramics and Glasses;23
4.1.1;1.1 Introduction;23
4.1.2;1.2 What Is a Ceramic?;24
4.1.3;1.3 Ceramic Processing;25
4.1.4;1.4 Powder Processing;25
4.1.5;1.5 Deformation and Fracture;27
4.1.6;1.6 Transformation Toughening;29
4.1.7;1.7 Pressureless Sintering;30
4.1.8;1.8 Isostatic Pressing;30
4.1.9;1.9 Liquid Phase Sintering;32
4.1.10;1.10 Tape Casting;32
4.1.11;1.11 Costs of Powder Processing;33
4.1.12;1.12 Porous Ceramics;33
4.1.12.1;1.12.1 BurPS;33
4.1.12.2;1.12.2 Foamed Slips;34
4.1.12.3;1.12.3 Reticulated Foams;34
4.1.13;1.13 Measurement of Porosity in Porous Ceramics;35
4.1.14;1.14 Surface Engineering;36
4.1.14.1;1.14.1 Ion Implantation;37
4.1.14.2;1.14.2 Thermal Spray Coatings;37
4.1.15;1.15 Glasses and Glass-Ceramics;39
4.1.15.1;1.15.1 Glasses;39
4.1.15.2;1.15.2 Glass-Ceramics;41
4.1.15.3;1.15.3 Bioceramics;42
4.1.15.4;1.15.4 Bone;43
4.1.15.5;1.15.5 Medical Ceramics;45
4.1.15.6;1.15.6 Biomedical Use of Bioceramics;46
4.1.15.7;1.15.7 Alumina;46
4.1.15.8;1.15.8 Zirconia;48
4.1.15.9;1.15.9 Hydroxyapatite;49
4.1.15.10;1.15.10 Porous Bioceramics;50
4.1.16;1.16 Functional Gradient Materials;52
4.1.17;1.17 Bone Morphogenetic Proteins;53
4.1.18;1.18 Hydroxyapatite Coatings;54
4.1.19;1.19 Bioactive Glasses;56
4.1.20;1.20 Conclusion;57
4.1.21;References;57
4.2;2 Metallic Biomaterials;60
4.2.1;2.1 Introduction Why Metals?;60
4.2.2;2.2 Metallic Interatomic Bonding;61
4.2.3;2.3 Crystal Structures Atom Packing in Metals;61
4.2.4;2.4 Phase Transformations Diffusive and Displacive;62
4.2.5;2.5 Diffusion in Metals;65
4.2.6;2.6 Interatomic Forces and Elastic Moduli ( Structure-Insensitive Properties);67
4.2.7;2.7 Plastic Deformation and Structure-Sensitive Properties;69
4.2.8;2.8 Corrosion Resistance;73
4.2.9;2.9 Metals and Processes for Implant Fabrication;73
4.2.10;2.10 Austenitic Stainless Steel (ASTM F 138/139, F 1314, F 1586, F 2229) American Society for Testing and Materials recommended standards;74
4.2.11;2.11 Co-based Alloys;77
4.2.12;2.12 Cast CoCrMo (ASTM F 75);77
4.2.13;2.13 Wrought CoCrMo (Low- and High-Carbon) (ASTM F 799, F 1537);81
4.2.14;2.14 Surface Modification of CoCrMo Implants Porous Coatings for Bone Ingrowth;83
4.2.15;2.15 Other Co-containing Implant Alloys (ASTM F 562, F 90, F 563, F 1058);85
4.2.16;2.16 Titanium-Based Alloys;86
4.2.17;2.17 Commercial Purity Ti;87
4.2.18;2.18 ( ) Ti Alloys;88
4.2.19;2.19 -Ti and Near -Ti Alloys;90
4.2.20;2.20 Zr-Nb Alloy;91
4.2.21;2.21 Ni-Ti Alloys (Nitinol);92
4.2.22;2.22 Tantalum;93
4.2.23;2.23 Platinum, Platinum-Iridium;94
4.2.24;2.24 Dental Alloys;94
4.2.25;2.25 Dental Amalgams;95
4.2.26;2.26 Dental Casting Alloys (Au-based, Co- and Ni-based, Ti-based);95
4.2.27;2.27 Wrought Dental Alloys;96
4.2.28;2.28 New Directions;97
4.2.29;References;97
4.3;3 Polymeric Biomaterials;101
4.3.1;3.1 Introduction;101
4.3.2;3.2 Nomenclature;101
4.3.3;3.3 Biopolymer in Medical Applications;101
4.3.4;3.4 Inert Polymers;104
4.3.4.1;3.4.1 Silicones;105
4.3.4.2;3.4.2 Polyacrylates;107
4.3.4.3;3.4.3 Polyethylene and Related Polymers;108
4.3.4.3.1;3.4.3.1 Hydrogel Polymers in this Group;110
4.3.4.4;3.4.4 Polyamides;111
4.3.4.5;3.4.5 Polyurethane and Polyurea;112
4.3.4.6;3.4.6 Polyesters;113
4.3.4.7;3.4.7 Polyethers;113
4.3.5;3.5 Natural Biopolymer;114
4.3.5.1;3.5.1 Collagen and Gelatins;114
4.3.5.2;3.5.2 Fibrin;115
4.3.5.3;3.5.3 Polysaccharide Hydrogels;115
4.3.5.4;3.5.4 Glycosaminoglycans;116
4.3.5.5;3.5.5 Alginates;117
4.3.5.6;3.5.6 Chitin and Chitosan;118
4.3.5.7;3.5.7 Dextran;119
4.3.6;3.6 Bioactive Polymers;120
4.3.6.1;3.6.1 Polymeric Drugs;121
4.3.6.1.1;3.6.1.1 Polycationic Polymers;121
4.3.6.1.2;3.6.1.2 Polyanionic Polymers;121
4.3.6.1.3;3.6.1.3 Polynucleotides/Polypeptides;121
4.3.6.1.4;3.6.1.4 Polysaccharides;121
4.3.6.2;3.6.2 Polymeric Drug Conjugates/Polymeric Protein Conjugates;122
4.3.6.3;3.6.3 Polymeric Prodrugs;123
4.3.6.4;3.6.4 Targeted Polymeric Drug;123
4.3.7;3.7 Biodegradable Polymers;123
4.3.7.1;3.7.1 Polyesters;124
4.3.7.2;3.7.2 Poly(ortho esters);126
4.3.7.3;3.7.3 Polycarbonates;127
4.3.7.4;3.7.4 Polyanhydrides;127
4.3.7.5;3.7.5 Poly(phosphate ester);128
4.3.7.6;3.7.6 Poly(phosphazenes);128
4.3.8;3.8 Characterization of Biomaterials;129
4.3.8.1;3.8.1 Chemical Properties on the Surfaces;130
4.3.8.2;3.8.2 Physical Properties of the Surfaces;131
4.3.8.3;3.8.3 Adsorbed and Immobilized Protein Determination;132
4.3.8.4;3.8.4 In Vitro Cell Growth;132
4.3.8.5;3.8.5 Blood Compatibility;132
4.3.9;3.9 Fabrication Technology;133
4.3.9.1;3.9.1 Extrusion;133
4.3.9.2;3.9.2 Injection Molding;135
4.3.10;3.10 Future Trends in Biomedical Uses of Biopolymers;135
4.3.11;References;135
5;Part II The Interaction Between Materials and Living Tissues;138
5.1;4 Biomaterials: Processing, Characterization, and Applications;139
5.1.1;4.1 Introduction;139
5.1.2;4.2 Bone Biomechanics;139
5.1.2.1;4.2.1 Bone Composition and Structure;139
5.1.2.1.1;4.2.1.1 Composition;139
5.1.2.1.2;4.2.1.2 Bone Structure;140
5.1.2.1.3;4.2.1.3 Bone Physical Properties;141
5.1.2.2;4.2.2 Biomechanical Properties of Bone;142
5.1.2.2.1;4.2.2.1 Cortical Bone;142
5.1.2.2.2;4.2.2.2 Trabecular Bone;144
5.1.2.3;4.2.3 Bone Remodeling;145
5.1.3;4.3 Cartilage Biomechanics;146
5.1.3.1;4.3.1 Cartilage Composition and Structure;146
5.1.3.1.1;4.3.1.1 Structure;146
5.1.3.1.2;4.3.1.2 Composition;148
5.1.3.2;4.3.2 Biomechanical Properties of Cartilage;149
5.1.3.2.1;4.3.2.1 Permeability;149
5.1.3.2.2;4.3.2.2 Viscoelastic Properties;150
5.1.3.2.3;4.3.2.3 Cartilage Swelling;151
5.1.3.3;4.3.3 Cartilage Degeneration;151
5.1.4;4.4 Skin Biomechanics;152
5.1.4.1;4.4.1 Skin Composition and Structure;152
5.1.4.2;4.4.2 Biomechanical Properties of Skin;153
5.1.5;4.5 Tendon and Ligament Biomechanics;154
5.1.5.1;4.5.1 Structure and Composition;154
5.1.5.2;4.5.2 Biomechanical Properties of Tendons and Ligaments;155
5.1.6;4.6 Muscle Biomechanics;156
5.1.6.1;4.6.1 Muscle Structure and Composition;156
5.1.6.2;4.6.2 Biomechanical Properties of Muscles;158
5.1.7;4.7 Blood Vessel and Arterial Biomechanics;159
5.1.7.1;4.7.1 Composition and Structure of Blood Vessels and Arteries;159
5.1.7.2;4.7.2 Biomechanical Properties;161
5.1.7.3;4.7.3 Critical Closing Pressure;162
5.1.8;4.8 Joint Biomechanics;162
5.1.8.1;4.8.1 Description of Joint Biomechanics;163
5.1.8.2;4.8.2 Function of Joint Biomechanics;163
5.1.8.3;4.8.3 Mechanical Stresses of Joints;164
5.1.9;4.9 Conclusion;164
5.1.10;Bibliography;164
5.2;Bibliography;165
5.3;5 Metal Corrosion;171
5.3.1;5.1 Interaction of Metallic Biomaterials with the Human Body Environment;171
5.3.2;5.2 Electrochemical Reactions on Metallic Biomaterials;172
5.3.3;5.3 Forms of Corrosion of Metallic Biomaterials;185
5.3.3.1;5.3.1 Uniform Dissolution;186
5.3.3.2;5.3.2 Galvanic Corrosion;187
5.3.3.3;5.3.3 Concentration Cell Corrosion;189
5.3.3.4;5.3.4 Pitting and Crevice Corrosion;190
5.3.3.5;5.3.5 Environment Induced Cracking;192
5.3.3.6;5.3.6 Intergranular Corrosion;193
5.3.3.7;5.3.7 Wear-Corrosion, Abrasion-Corrosion, Erosion-Corrosion, Fretting;194
5.3.4;5.4 Corrosion Testing of Metallic Biomaterials;194
5.3.5;References;194
5.4;6 Wear;198
5.4.1;6.1 Introduction;198
5.4.2;6.2 Friction, Lubrication, and Wear;198
5.4.3;6.3 Wear Classifications and Fundamental Wear Mechanisms;200
5.4.3.1;6.3.1 Adhesive Wear;201
5.4.3.2;6.3.2 Fatigue Wear;202
5.4.3.3;6.3.3 Abrasive Wear and Third-Body Wear;203
5.4.3.4;6.3.4 Chemical (Corrosive) Wear;204
5.4.4;6.4 Wear in Biomedical Devices and Biomaterials;204
5.4.4.1;6.4.1 Wear in Prostheses and Biomedical Devices;205
5.4.4.2;6.4.2 Wear Resistance of Biomedical Materials;206
5.4.5;6.5 Summary;211
5.4.6;References;211
5.5;7 Inflammation, Carcinogenicity and Hypersensitivity;215
5.5.1;7.1 Introduction;215
5.5.2;7.2 Granulation Tissue;215
5.5.3;7.3 Foreign Body Response;216
5.5.4;7.4 Repair;217
5.5.5;7.5 Acute and Chronic Inflammation;218
5.5.6;7.6 Infection;220
5.5.7;7.7 Local and Systemic Responses;221
5.5.8;7.8 Soft and Hard Tissue Responses;221
5.5.9;7.9 BloodMaterial Interactions;223
5.5.10;7.10 Biocompatibility;224
5.5.11;7.11 Carcinogenicity;226
5.5.12;7.12 Hypersensitivity;227
5.5.13;References;227
5.6;8 Protein Interactions at Material Surfaces;229
5.6.1;8.1 Introduction;229
5.6.2;8.2 Protein Properties;229
5.6.2.1;8.2.1 Structure;230
5.6.2.1.1;8.2.1.1 Primary Structure;231
5.6.2.1.2;8.2.1.2 Secondary Structure;231
5.6.2.1.3;8.2.1.3 Tertiary Structure;234
5.6.2.1.4;8.2.1.4 Quaternary Structure;235
5.6.2.2;8.2.2 Isoelectric Point and Solubility;237
5.6.2.3;8.2.3 Hydrophobic Composition;237
5.6.3;8.3 Material Surface Properties;237
5.6.3.1;8.3.1 Surface Topography;238
5.6.3.2;8.3.2 Surface Energy;240
5.6.3.3;8.3.3 Surface Chemistry;241
5.6.4;8.4 Protein Adsorption on Surfaces;242
5.6.4.1;8.4.1 Kinetics and Thermodynamics;243
5.6.4.2;8.4.2 Density;244
5.6.4.3;8.4.3 Conformation;244
5.6.4.4;8.4.4 Extracellular Matrix Proteins;245
5.6.4.5;8.4.5 Cell Adhesive Amino Acid Sequences;246
5.6.5;8.5 Nanoscale Biomaterials;247
5.6.6;8.6 Conclusions;249
5.6.7;References;249
5.7;9 Sterility and Infection;252
5.7.1;9.1 Sterilization;252
5.7.1.1;9.1.1 Steam Autoclaves;252
5.7.1.2;9.1.2 Dry Heat;254
5.7.1.3;9.1.3 Radiation;254
5.7.1.4;9.1.4 Ethylene Oxide;254
5.7.1.5;9.1.5 New Technologies;255
5.7.2;9.2 Biomaterials Associated Infections;255
5.7.2.1;9.2.1 Biofilms;255
5.7.2.2;9.2.2 Types of Medical Related Biofilms;257
5.7.2.3;9.2.3 Infections Associated with Implantable Devices;258
5.7.2.3.1;9.2.3.1 Central Venus Catheters;258
5.7.2.3.2;9.2.3.2 Urinary Catheters;259
5.7.2.3.3;9.2.3.3 Prosthetic Heart Valves;259
5.7.2.3.4;9.2.3.4 Orthopedic Prosthetic Infections;259
5.7.3;9.3 The Use of Antibiotics in the Treatment of Biomaterials Associated Infections;261
5.7.3.1;9.3.1 Systemic Antibiotic Prophylaxis;261
5.7.3.2;9.3.2 Local Delivery of Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Agents;262
5.7.3.2.1;9.3.2.1 Antimicrobial Irrigation of a Surgical Field;262
5.7.3.2.2;9.3.2.2 Dipping of Biomaterials in Antimicrobial Solutions;262
5.7.3.2.3;9.3.2.3 The Antimicrobial Coating of Biomaterials;262
5.7.3.2.4;9.3.2.4 Placement of an Antimicrobial Carrier;262
5.7.4;9.4 Developing Infection-Preventing Biomaterials;263
5.7.5;9.5 Case Study: Oral Infections and Biomaterials;264
5.7.5.1;9.5.1 Dental Caries and Periapical Disease;265
5.7.5.2;9.5.2 Periodontal Disease;269
5.7.6;References;264
5.8;10 Biocompatibility Testing;274
5.8.1;10.1 Introduction;274
5.8.2;10.2 Sample Preparation;275
5.8.3;10.3 Mammalian Cell Culture;276
5.8.3.1;10.3.1 Cytotoxicity Testing;281
5.8.3.2;10.3.2 Hemocompatibility;288
5.8.3.3;10.3.3 Hypersensitivity/Allergic Responses;292
5.8.3.4;10.3.4 Genotoxicity;295
5.8.3.5;10.3.5 Tissue Specific Aspects of Biocompatibility Testing;299
5.8.4;10.4 Animal Experimentation;300
5.8.5;10.5 Alternatives to Animal Experimentation;301
5.8.6;References;301
6;Part III Applications of Polymers, Metals, and Ceramics in Medicine;306
6.1;11 Biomaterials for Dental Applications;307
6.1.1;11.1 Introduction;307
6.1.2;11.2 Historical Perspectives;308
6.1.3;11.3 Metals for Dental Application;308
6.1.3.1;11.3.1 Amalgams;308
6.1.3.2;11.3.2 Biocompatibility of Dental Amalgams;310
6.1.3.3;11.3.3 Casting Alloys;310
6.1.3.3.1;11.3.3.1 Titanium and Related Alloys;312
6.1.3.3.2;11.3.3.2 Casting and Soldering;314
6.1.3.4;11.3.4 Wrought Alloys as Orthodontic Wire;314
6.1.3.5;11.3.5 Dental Implants;316
6.1.3.5.1;11.3.5.1 Endosseous Implants;316
6.1.3.5.2;11.3.5.2 Subperiosteal Implants;317
6.1.3.5.3;11.3.5.3 Transosseous Implants;318
6.1.3.5.4;11.3.5.4 The Phenomenon of Osseointegration;318
6.1.3.5.5;11.3.5.5 Materials Issues in Dental Implants;319
6.1.3.5.6;11.3.5.6 Surface Issues;321
6.1.3.5.7;11.3.5.7 Problems with Dental Implants;324
6.1.4;11.4 Ceramics for Dental Applications;325
6.1.4.1;11.4.1 Metal-Ceramic Restorations;326
6.1.4.2;11.4.2 All-Ceramic Restorations;327
6.1.4.3;11.4.3 Processing of All-Ceramic Restorations;329
6.1.4.4;11.4.4 Selection Guide for All-Ceramic Restorations;330
6.1.4.5;11.4.5 Clinical Failure of All-Ceramic Crowns;331
6.1.4.6;11.4.6 Bioactive Glasses;331
6.1.5;11.5 Polymers for Dental Applications;331
6.1.5.1;11.5.1 Dentures;332
6.1.5.2;11.5.2 Dental Cements;332
6.1.5.3;11.5.3 Composite Dental Materials;334
6.1.6;11.6 Closure;335
6.1.7;References;335
6.2;12 Ophthalmic Biomaterials;339
6.2.1;12.1 Introduction;339
6.2.2;12.2 Oxygen Delivery;340
6.2.3;12.3 Refraction;342
6.2.4;12.4 Tissue Protection;344
6.2.5;12.5 Tissue Integration;345
6.2.5.1;12.5.1 Artificial Cornea Transplants;346
6.2.5.2;12.5.2 Artificial Eye;347
6.2.5.3;12.5.3 Retinal Implants;349
6.2.6;12.6 Modulation of Wound Healing;351
6.2.7;12.7 Interfacial Tension and Tamponade;352
6.2.8;12.8 Concluding Remarks;357
6.2.9;References;357
6.3;13 Hip Prosthesis;360
6.3.1;13.1 Introduction;360
6.3.2;13.2 History of Total Hip Replacement;362
6.3.3;13.3 Various Components and Design of THR;363
6.3.3.1;13.3.1 Socket or Acetabular Cup;364
6.3.3.2;13.3.2 The Ball;365
6.3.3.3;13.3.3 Stem;365
6.3.3.4;13.3.4 Fixation of THR;365
6.3.4;13.4 Various Materials for THR;367
6.3.4.1;13.4.1 Alumina;368
6.3.4.2;13.4.2 Yttria Stabilized Zirconia;369
6.3.4.3;13.4.3 Polyethylene;370
6.3.4.4;13.4.4 Cobalt Based Alloys;371
6.3.4.5;13.4.5 Titanium Based Alloys;373
6.3.4.6;13.4.6 Coatings;374
6.3.5;13.5 Design Variation of THR;376
6.3.6;References;376
6.4;14 Burn Dressing Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering;381
6.4.1;14.1 Introduction;381
6.4.2;14.2 Physiology of the Skin;381
6.4.2.1;14.2.1 Basic Organization and Cellular Composition;382
6.4.2.1.1;14.2.1.1 Keratinocytes;382
6.4.2.1.2;14.2.1.2 Melanocytes;383
6.4.2.1.3;14.2.1.3 Merkel Cells;383
6.4.2.1.4;14.2.1.4 Langerhans Cells;384
6.4.2.1.5;14.2.1.5 Fibroblasts;384
6.4.2.2;14.2.2 The Epidermis;384
6.4.2.2.1;14.2.2.1 Stratum Germinativum;385
6.4.2.2.2;14.2.2.2 Stratum Spinosum;385
6.4.2.2.3;14.2.2.3 Stratum Granulosum;386
6.4.2.2.4;14.2.2.4 Stratum Lucidum;386
6.4.2.2.5;14.2.2.5 Stratum Corneum;386
6.4.2.3;14.2.3 The Dermis;387
6.4.2.3.1;14.2.3.1 Papillary Dermis;388
6.4.2.3.2;14.2.3.2 Reticular Dermis;388
6.4.2.4;14.2.4 The Dermal-Epidermal Junction Zone;388
6.4.2.5;14.2.5 The Hypodermis;389
6.4.2.6;14.2.6 The Appendages;389
6.4.2.6.1;14.2.6.1 Sweat Glands;390
6.4.2.6.2;14.2.6.2 Sebaceous Glands;390
6.4.2.6.3;14.2.6.3 Hair Follicles;390
6.4.2.6.4;14.2.6.4 Nails;391
6.4.2.7;14.2.7 Functions of the Skin;391
6.4.3;14.3 Development of the Integumentary System;391
6.4.3.1;14.3.1 The Epidermis;392
6.4.3.2;14.3.2 The Dermis;392
6.4.3.3;14.3.3 The Appendages;393
6.4.4;14.4 Burns;393
6.4.4.1;14.4.1 Burn Classification;393
6.4.4.2;14.4.2 Principles of Burn Wound Healing;394
6.4.4.3;14.4.3 Immune System Response to Burn Injury;396
6.4.4.4;14.4.4 Complications;397
6.4.5;14.5 Conventional Treatment of Burns;397
6.4.5.1;14.5.1 Treatment of Minor Burns;397
6.4.5.2;14.5.2 Primary Treatment of Severe Burns;398
6.4.5.3;14.5.3 Autografting: The Current Gold Standard;399
6.4.5.4;14.5.4 Biological Alternatives for Temporary Wound Coverage;400
6.4.5.4.1;14.5.4.1 Allografts;400
6.4.5.4.2;14.5.4.2 Xenografts;401
6.4.6;14.6 Burn Dressing Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering;402
6.4.6.1;14.6.1 Design Criteria;402
6.4.6.1.1;14.6.1.1 Adherence;402
6.4.6.1.2;14.6.1.2 Barrier Properties;403
6.4.6.1.3;14.6.1.3 Mechanical Properties;403
6.4.6.1.4;14.6.1.4 Biodegradability and Immune Response;403
6.4.6.1.5;14.6.1.5 Surgical Handleability;403
6.4.6.1.6;14.6.1.6 Expense;404
6.4.6.2;14.6.2 Skin Substitutes;404
6.4.6.2.1;14.6.2.1 Epidermal Substitutes;404
6.4.6.2.2;14.6.2.2 Dermal Substitutes;409
6.4.6.2.3;14.6.2.3 Composite Substitutes;410
6.4.6.3;14.6.3 Growth Factor Incorporation;412
6.4.6.4;14.6.4 Epidermal Stem Cells;412
6.4.7;14.7 Future Outlook;412
6.4.8;References;412
6.5;15 Natural and Synthetic Polymeric Scaffolds;424
6.5.1;15.1 Introduction;424
6.5.2;15.2 Natural Polymers for Scaffold Fabrication;424
6.5.2.1;15.2.1 Polysaccharides;426
6.5.2.1.1;15.2.1.1 Agarose;426
6.5.2.1.2;15.2.1.2 Alginate;426
6.5.2.1.3;15.2.1.3 Hyaluronic Acid;427
6.5.2.1.4;15.2.1.4 Chitosan;427
6.5.3;15.3 Polypeptides;428
6.5.3.1;15.3.1 Collagen;428
6.5.3.1.1;15.3.1.1 Gelatin;429
6.5.3.1.2;15.3.1.2 Silk;429
6.5.4;15.4 Synthetic Polymers for Scaffold Fabrication;430
6.5.4.1;15.4.1 Polyesters;430
6.5.4.1.1;15.4.1.1 Poly(Glycolic Acid);430
6.5.4.1.2;15.4.1.2 Poly(L-lactic acid);432
6.5.4.1.3;15.4.1.3 Poly(D,L-lactic acid-co-glycolic acid);433
6.5.4.1.4;15.4.1.4 Poly(-caprolactone);433
6.5.4.1.5;15.4.1.5 Poly(propylene fumarate);434
6.5.4.1.6;15.4.1.6 Polyorthoester;434
6.5.4.2;15.4.2 Other Synthetic Polymers;435
6.5.4.2.1;15.4.2.1 Polyanhydride;435
6.5.4.2.2;15.4.2.2 Polyphosphazene;435
6.5.4.2.3;15.4.2.3 Polycarbonate;436
6.5.4.2.4;15.4.2.4 Poly(ethylene glycol);436
6.5.4.2.5;15.4.2.5 Polyurethane;437
6.5.5;15.5 Fabrication Techniques;437
6.5.5.1;15.5.1 Conventional Techniques;437
6.5.5.1.1;15.5.1.1 Fiber Bonding;437
6.5.5.1.2;15.5.1.2 Solvent-Casting Particulate-Leaching;438
6.5.5.1.3;15.5.1.3 Phase Separation;438
6.5.5.1.4;15.5.1.4 Melt Molding;438
6.5.5.1.5;15.5.1.5 Freeze Drying;439
6.5.5.1.6;15.5.1.6 Gas Foaming;439
6.5.5.2;15.5.2 Rapid Prototyping or Solid Freeform Fabrication Techniques;439
6.5.6;15.6 Properties for Scaffold Design;439
6.5.6.1;15.6.1 Polymer Assembly;440
6.5.6.2;15.6.2 Surface Properties;441
6.5.6.3;15.6.3 Macrostructure;441
6.5.6.4;15.6.4 Biocompatibility;442
6.5.6.5;15.6.5 Biodegradability;443
6.5.6.6;15.6.6 Mechanical Properties;444
6.5.7;15.7 Summary;444
6.5.8;References;444
6.6;16 BioMEMS;452
6.6.1;16.1 MEMS General Introduction;452
6.6.2;16.2 BioMEMS General Presentation;453
6.6.2.1;16.2.1 What Are They?;453
6.6.2.1.1;16.2.1.1 BioMEMS as Transducers;453
6.6.2.1.2;16.2.1.2 BioMEMS as Building Blocks for Micro Fluidic Elements;454
6.6.2.2;16.2.2 Why Building BioMEMS?;455
6.6.2.2.1;16.2.2.1 Favorable Exploitation of Miniaturization;455
6.6.2.2.2;16.2.2.2 Factual Possibility to Fabricate Such Small Systems;456
6.6.2.3;16.2.3 Risks and Drawback Associated to BioMEMS;457
6.6.2.3.1;16.2.3.1 In-Vitro BioMEMS Reliability;458
6.6.2.3.2;16.2.3.2 In-Vivo Reliability;458
6.6.3;16.3 BioMEMS Design, Materials and Fabrication;458
6.6.3.1;16.3.1 BioMEMS Design;458
6.6.3.2;16.3.2 BioMEMS: Importance of Materials and Materials Characterization;459
6.6.3.3;16.3.3 Material for BioMEMS;461
6.6.3.3.1;16.3.3.1 Silicon;461
6.6.3.3.2;16.3.3.2 Metals;462
6.6.3.3.3;16.3.3.3 Ceramics for MEMS Microfabrication;463
6.6.3.3.4;16.3.3.4 Polymers;464
6.6.3.3.5;16.3.3.5 Biomaterials and Nanomaterials;465
6.6.3.4;16.3.4 Biocompatibility of MEMS Materials;465
6.6.3.5;16.3.5 BioMEMS Fabrication Techniques;465
6.6.3.5.1;16.3.5.1 Photolithography;466
6.6.3.5.2;16.3.5.2 Bulk Micro-Machining;467
6.6.3.5.3;16.3.5.3 Surface Micro-Machining;470
6.6.3.5.4;16.3.5.4 Embosssing, Injection Molding Techniques;472
6.6.3.5.5;16.3.5.5 Stereophotolithography;472
6.6.3.5.6;16.3.5.6 Bonding, Hermetic Sealing and Packaging;473
6.6.3.5.7;16.3.5.7 From Top-Down to Bottom-Up;473
6.6.4;16.4 BioMEMS Application Review;474
6.6.4.1;16.4.1 BioMEMS Classification;474
6.6.4.2;16.4.2 BioMEMS for Cell Culturing;475
6.6.4.3;16.4.3 BioMEMS for DNA, Proteins and Chemical Analysis;476
6.6.4.4;16.4.4 BioMEMS for In-Vivo Applications: Interfacing with the Nervous System;478
6.6.4.5;16.4.5 Micro-Surgical Tools;479
6.6.5;16.5 Conclusion;480
6.6.6;References;480
6.7;17 Magnetic Particles for Biomedical Applications;485
6.7.1;17.1 Introduction;485
6.7.2;17.2 Magnetism and Magnetic Materials;486
6.7.2.1;17.2.1 Categories of Magnetic Materials;487
6.7.2.2;17.2.2 The Influence of Temperature;489
6.7.2.3;17.2.3 Magnetization Processes in Ferromagnetic and Ferrimagnetic Materials;489
6.7.2.4;17.2.4 Factors Affecting Magnetic Properties;490
6.7.3;17.3 Physical Principles;491
6.7.4;17.4 Examples and Property Requirements of Magnetic Biomaterials;493
6.7.5;17.5 Applications;493
6.7.5.1;17.5.1 Magnetic Separation;494
6.7.5.2;17.5.2 Drug Delivery;495
6.7.5.3;17.5.3 Radionuclide Delivery;496
6.7.5.4;17.5.4 Gene Delivery;496
6.7.5.5;17.5.5 Hyperthermia;496
6.7.5.6;17.5.6 Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contrast Agent;497
6.7.5.7;17.5.7 Artificial Muscle;498
6.7.6;17.6 Summary;498
6.7.7;References;498
6.8;18 Specialized Fabrication Processes: Rapid Prototyping;500
6.8.1;18.1 Introduction;500
6.8.2;18.2 Biomedical Applications of Rapid Prototyping-Tissue Engineering Scaffolds;501
6.8.3;18.3 Roles and Pre-Requisites for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds;501
6.8.4;18.4 Conventional Manual-Based Scaffold Fabrication Techniques;502
6.8.5;18.5 Computer-Controlled Freeform Fabrication Techniques for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds;503
6.8.5.1;18.5.1 Solid-Based Techniques;504
6.8.5.1.1;18.5.1.1 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM);504
6.8.5.1.2;18.5.1.2 ModelMaker II (MM II);508
6.8.5.2;18.5.2 Powder-Based Techniques;509
6.8.5.2.1;18.5.2.1 Three-Dimensional Printing (3D-P);509
6.8.5.2.2;18.5.2.2 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS);510
6.8.5.3;18.5.3 Liquid-Based Techniques;512
6.8.5.3.1;18.5.3.1 Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA);512
6.8.5.3.2;18.5.3.2 Rapid Freeze Prototyping (RFP);514
6.8.6;18.6 Development of CAD Strategies and Solutions for Automated Scaffolds Fabrication;515
6.8.7;18.7 Prostheses;519
6.8.7.1;18.7.1 Integrated Approach to Prostheses Production;520
6.8.7.1.1;18.7.1.1 Data Acquisition;520
6.8.7.1.2;18.7.1.2 CAD Remodeling;521
6.8.7.1.3;18.7.1.3 Fabrication of Prosthesis Via RP;521
6.8.7.1.4;18.7.1.4 Casting of Actual Prosthesis;521
6.8.8;18.8 Case Studies;521
6.8.8.1;18.8.1 Case Study 1: Prosthetic Ear;522
6.8.8.2;18.8.2 Case Study 2: Prosthetic Forehead;523
6.8.9;18.9 Conclusion;525
6.8.10;References;525
6.9;19 Manufacturing Issues;531
6.9.1;19.1 Patents;532
6.9.1.1;19.1.1 EPC Contracting Countries;536
6.9.1.2;19.1.2 PCT Contracting Countries;536
6.9.1.3;19.1.3 Copyright;537
6.9.1.4;19.1.4 Trade Marks;538
6.9.1.5;19.1.5 Registered Design;538
6.9.1.6;19.1.6 Finally Litigation;539
6.9.2;19.2 Liability;540
6.9.3;19.3 Quality, Standards, Specifications;544
6.9.4;19.4 Audit;544
6.9.4.1;19.4.1 Design Dossier;545
6.9.5;19.5 FMEA;546
6.9.5.1;19.5.1 Standards;547
6.9.5.2;19.5.2 Specification;549
6.9.5.3;19.5.3 Manufacturing;549
6.10;Index;1