Raffel / Willert / Scarano Particle Image Velocimetry

A Practical Guide
3rd Auflage 2018
ISBN: 978-3-319-68852-7
Verlag: Springer Nature Switzerland
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 680 Seiten

This immensely practical guide to PIV provides a condensed, yet exhaustive guide to most of the information needed for experiments employing the technique. This second edition has updated chapters on the principles and extra information on microscopic, high-speed and three component measurements as well as a description of advanced evaluation techniques. What's more, the huge increase in the range of possible applications has been taken into account as the chapter describing these applications of the PIV technique has been expanded.

 Markus Raffel received his degree in Mechanical Engineering in 1990 from the Technical University of Karlsruhe, his doctorate in Engineering in 1993 from the University of Hannover and his lecturer qualification (Habilitation) from the Technical University Clausthal, in 2001. He started working on PIV at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in 1991 with emphasis on the development of PIV recording techniques in high-speed ows. In this process he applied the method to a number of aerodynamic problems mainly in the context of rotorcraft investigations. Markus Raffel additionally works on the development of other ow metrology like the background-oriented schlieren technique and the differential infrared thermography. He is professor at the University of Hannover and head of the Department of Helicopters at DLR's Institute of Aerodynamics and Flow Technology in Goettingen.
Christian Willert received his Bachelor of Science in Applied Science from the University of California at San Diego (UCSD) in 1987. Subsequent graduate work in experimental fluid mechanics at UCSD lead to the development of several non-intrusive measurement techniques for application in water (particle tracing, 3-D particle tracking, digital PIV). After receiving his Ph.D. in Engineering Sciences in 1992, he assumed post-doctoral positions first at the Institute for Nonlinear Science (INLS) at UCSD, then at the Graduate Aeronautical Laboratories at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). In 1994 he joined DLR Goettingen's measurement sciences group as part of an exchange program between Caltech and DLR. Since 1997 he has been working in the development and application of planar velocimetry techniques (PIV and Doppler Global Velocimetry (DGV)) at the Institute of Propulsion Technology of DLR and now is heading the Department of Engine Measurement Techniques there.

Fulvio Scarano graduated in Aerospace Engineering at University of Naples (1996). Obtained the Ph.D. in 2000 (von Karman Institute, Theodor von Karman prize) and joined TU Delft at the faculty of Aerospace Engineering in the Aerodynamics Section in the same year. Since 2008 he is full professor of Aerodynamics and acts as head of section since 2010. Starting director of Aerospace Engineering Graduate School (2012). Currently director of the AWEP department (Aerodynamics, Wind Energy, Flight Performance and propulsion). Recipient of Marie-Curie grant (1999), Dutch Science Foundation VIDI grant (2005) and of the European Research Council grant (ERC, 2009). European project coordinator (AFDAR, Advanced Flow Diagnostics for Aeronautical Research, 2010-2013). Promoted and supervised more than 20 PhDs. The research interests cover the development of particle image velocimetry (PIV) and its applications to high-speed aerodynamics in the supersonic and hypersonic regime. Notable developments are the image deformation technique, Tomographic PIV for 3D ow velocity measurements and its use to Preface XI quantitatively determine pressure uctuations and acoustic emissions in wind tunnel experiments. Recent works deal with the combination of PIV data with CFD techniques, extension of PIV to large-scale wind tunnel experiments and applications ranging from sport aerodynamics to ground vehicles, from aircraft to rocket aerodynamics. Author of more than 200 publications, delivered more than 20 keynote lectures worldwide. He acts as editorial board member of many international conferences and journals, Measurement Science and Technology and Experiments in Fluids, among others.

Christian J. Kaehler received his Physics Diplom Degree from the Technical University Clausthal in 1997, his PhD in Physics from the Georg August University of Goettingen in 2004 and his Habilitation from the Technical University in Brunswick in 2008. From 1996 to 2001 Dr. Kaehler worked at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Goettingen (Dr. Kompenhans), during which he had research stays at the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign in 1996 (Prof. Adrian) and at Caltech in 1998 (Prof. Gharib). From 2001 to 2008 he was the head of the research group on Flow Control and Measuring Techniques at the Technical University Brunswick (Prof. Radespiel). He then became Professor for Fluid Dynamics and was appointed director of the Institute of Fluid Mechanics and Aerodynamics of the University at der Bundeswehr Muenchen in 2008. In 2012, he was offered an Einstein professorship for Aerodynamics at the Technical University Berlin (declined) and in 2017 the Technical University Darmstadt offered him to become head of the chair of Fluid Mechanics (declined). His research covers a broad range of topics involving the development of optical measurement techniques on the micro and macro scale in order to further investigate complex phenomenon in microuidics and turbulent ows at subsonic, transonic, and supersonic conditions. He is an associate editor of Experiments in Fluids (Springer Nature), an editorial advisory board member of Flow, Turbulence and Combustion (Springer Nature) and editorial board member of Theoretical & Applied Mechanics Letters (Elsevier) and a Steering committee member and organizer of the International PIV Challenge (2001 Goettingen, 2003 Busan, 2005 Pasadena, 2014 Lisbon).

Steven T. Wereley received both his Bachelor of Arts in Physics from Lawrence University at Appleton, Wisconsin, and his Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering from Washington University at St. Louis in 1990. He received his Master of Science and Ph.D. degrees from Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, in 1992 and 1997, respectively. Subsequently, he spent two years at the Mechanical and Environmental Engineering Department at the University of California in Santa Barbara developing particle image velocimetry algorithms for micro-domain investigations. Since 1999 he has been a professor at Purdue University in the School of Mechanical Engineering - as an Assistant Professor from 1999 to 2005 and an Associate Professor since then. Professor Wereley's research is largely concerned with microparticle image velocimetry techniques and micro-electromechanical systems with applications in bio-physics and bio-engineering.

Juergen Kompenhans received his doctoral degree in physics in 1976 from the Georg-August University of Goettingen. From 1977 until 2011 he worked for the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Goettingen, Germany, mainly developing and applying non-intrusive measurement techniques for aerodynamic research, starting with the PIV technique back in 1985. Since 2001 he has been head of the Department of Experimental Methods of DLR's Institute of Aerodynamics and Flow Technology in Goettingen. Within this department, image based methods such as Pressure Sensitive Paint, Temperature Sensitive Paint, Particle Image Velocimetry, model deformation measurement techniques, density measurement techniques, acoustic field measurement techniques etc. are developed for application as mobile systems in large industrial wind tunnels. As coordinator of several European networks he has contributed to promote and to disseminate the use of image based measurement techniques for industrial research. At present his interest is focused on contributing to the development of ow meters as well as of components required for the use of the PIV technique.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Raffel, Markus

Willert, Christian E.

Scarano, Fulvio

Kähler, Christian J.

Wereley, Steve T.

Kompenhans, Jürgen

K, Jürgen

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface to the Third Edition;5
1.1;Organization of the Book;7
1.2;Getting Started;9
1.3;About the Authors;9
1.4;Acknowledgements;12
2;Contents;18
3;1 Introduction;26
3.1;1.1 Historical Background;26
3.2;1.2 Principles of Measuring Velocities;31
3.3;1.3 Principle of Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV);33
3.4;1.4 Development of PIV During the Last Decades;40
3.4.1;1.4.1 Early Development of PIV;40
3.4.2;1.4.2 PIV Today;41
3.4.3;1.4.3 Major Technological Milestones of PIV;42
3.4.4;1.4.4 PIV for Fundamental Research in Turbulent Flows;45
3.4.5;1.4.5 PIV for Industrial Research in Large Test Facilities;51
3.5;References;54
4;2 Physical and Technical Background;58
4.1;2.1 Tracer Particles;58
4.1.1;2.1.1 Fluid Mechanical Properties;58
4.1.2;2.1.2 Neutrally Buoyant Particles;62
4.1.3;2.1.3 Effect of Centrifugal Forces;63
4.1.4;2.1.4 Brownian Motion;65
4.1.5;2.1.5 Light Scattering Behavior;67
4.1.6;2.1.6 Effective Size of Polydisperse Particles;71
4.2;2.2 Particle Generation and Supply;74
4.2.1;2.2.1 Seeding of Liquids;74
4.2.2;2.2.2 Seeding of Gases;76
4.2.3;2.2.3 Seeding Distribution in Wind Tunnels;84
4.3;2.3 Light Sources;85
4.3.1;2.3.1 Lasers;85
4.3.2;2.3.2 Features and Components of PIV Lasers;91
4.3.3;2.3.3 Light Emitting Diodes;98
4.3.4;2.3.4 White Light Sources;102
4.4;2.4 Light Delivery;102
4.4.1;2.4.1 Light Sheet Optics;102
4.4.2;2.4.2 Fiber Based Illumination;105
4.4.3;2.4.3 Illumination of Small Volumes;106
4.4.4;2.4.4 Illumination of Large Volumes;108
4.5;2.5 Imaging of Small Particles;109
4.5.1;2.5.1 Diffraction Limited Imaging;109
4.5.2;2.5.2 Lens Aberrations;113
4.5.3;2.5.3 Perspective Projection;116
4.5.4;2.5.4 Basics of Microscopic Imaging;118
4.5.5;2.5.5 In-Plane Spatial Resolution of Microscopic Imaging;120
4.5.6;2.5.6 Microscopes Typically Used in Micro-PIV;121
4.5.7;2.5.7 Confocal Microscopic Imaging;124
4.6;2.6 Sensor Technology for Digital Image Recording;124
4.6.1;2.6.1 Characteristics of CCD Sensors;125
4.6.2;2.6.2 Characteristics of CMOS Sensors;126
4.6.3;2.6.3 Sources of Noise;129
4.6.4;2.6.4 Spectral Characteristics;130
4.6.5;2.6.5 Linearity and Dynamic Range;131
4.7;References;132
5;3 Recording Techniques for PIV;137
5.1;3.1 Digital Cameras for PIV;139
5.1.1;3.1.1 Full-Frame CCD;140
5.1.2;3.1.2 Frame Transfer CCD;142
5.1.3;3.1.3 Interline Transfer CCD;143
5.1.4;3.1.4 CMOS Imaging Sensors;145
5.1.5;3.1.5 High-Speed Cameras;147
5.2;3.2 Single Frame/Multi-exposure Recording;149
5.2.1;3.2.1 Image Shifting;149
5.3;References;150
6;4 Mathematical Background of Statistical PIV Evaluation;152
6.1;4.1 Particle Image Locations;152
6.2;4.2 Image Intensity Field;154
6.3;4.3 Mean Value, Auto-correlation and Variance of a Single Exposure Recording;156
6.4;4.4 Cross-Correlation of a Pair of Two Singly Exposed Recordings;159
6.5;4.5 Correlation of a Doubly Exposed Recording;161
6.6;4.6 Expected Value of Displacement Correlation;164
6.7;References;166
7;5 Image Evaluation Methods for PIV;167
7.1;5.1 Correlation and Fourier Transform;168
7.1.1;5.1.1 Correlation;168
7.1.2;5.1.2 Optical Fourier Transform;169
7.1.3;5.1.3 Digital Fourier Transform;171
7.2;5.2 Overview of PIV Evaluation Methods;171
7.3;5.3 PIV Evaluation;172
7.3.1;5.3.1 Discrete Spatial Correlation in PIV Evaluation;173
7.3.2;5.3.2 Correlation Signal Enhancement;180
7.3.3;5.3.3 Evaluation of Doubly Exposed PIV Images;189
7.3.4;5.3.4 Advanced Digital Interrogation Techniques;191
7.3.5;5.3.5 Cross-Correlation Peak Detection;204
7.3.6;5.3.6 Interrogation Techniques for PIV Time-Series;209
7.4;5.4 Particle Tracking Velocimetry;211
7.4.1;5.4.1 Particle Image Detection and Position Estimation;212
7.4.2;5.4.2 Particle Pairing and Displacement Estimation;214
7.4.3;5.4.3 Spatial Resolution;214
7.4.4;5.4.4 Performance of Particle Tracking;215
7.4.5;5.4.5 Multi-frame Particle Tracking;218
7.5;References;218
8;6 PIV Uncertainty and Measurement Accuracy;225
8.1;6.1 Common PIV Measurement Error Contributions;225
8.1.1;6.1.1 Measurement Error Due to Invalid Measurements;228
8.1.2;6.1.2 Relative Uncertainty, Dynamic Velocity Range and Dynamic Spatial Range;230
8.1.3;6.1.3 Measurement Error;231
8.1.4;6.1.4 Error Propagation;233
8.2;6.2 PIV Measurement Error Estimation;236
8.2.1;6.2.1 Synthetic Particle Image Generation;238
8.2.2;6.2.2 Optimization of Particle Image Diameter;240
8.2.3;6.2.3 Peak Locking;241
8.2.4;6.2.4 Optimization of Particle Image Density;246
8.2.5;6.2.5 Effect of Background Noise;247
8.2.6;6.2.6 Effect of Particle Image Shift;249
8.2.7;6.2.7 Effect of Out-of-Plane Motion;250
8.2.8;6.2.8 Effect of Displacement Gradients;251
8.2.9;6.2.9 Effect of Streamline Curvature;253
8.3;6.3 Optimization of PIV Uncertainty;254
8.4;6.4 Multi-camera Systems;257
8.5;References;260
9;7 Post-processing of PIV Data;264
9.1;7.1 Data Validation;265
9.1.1;7.1.1 Vector Difference Test;270
9.1.2;7.1.2 Median Test;270
9.1.3;7.1.3 Normalized Median Test;270
9.1.4;7.1.4 Z-Score Test;272
9.1.5;7.1.5 Global Histogram Operator;272
9.1.6;7.1.6 Other Validation Filters;274
9.1.7;7.1.7 Implementation of Data Validation Algorithms;276
9.2;7.2 Replacement Schemes;277
9.3;7.3 Data Assimilation Techniques;277
9.3.1;7.3.1 Error Minimization;278
9.3.2;7.3.2 Enhancing Temporal Resolution;278
9.3.3;7.3.3 Enhancing Spatial Resolution;280
9.4;7.4 Vector Field Operators;280
9.5;7.5 Estimation of Differential Quantities;281
9.5.1;7.5.1 Standard Differentiation Schemes;283
9.5.2;7.5.2 Alternative Differentiation Schemes;286
9.5.3;7.5.3 Uncertainties and Errors in Differential Estimation;290
9.6;7.6 Estimation of Integral Quantities;292
9.6.1;7.6.1 Path Integrals – Circulation;292
9.6.2;7.6.2 Path Integrals – Mass Flow;293
9.6.3;7.6.3 Area Integrals;294
9.6.4;7.6.4 Pressure and Forces from PIV Data;296
9.7;7.7 Vortex Detection;300
9.8;References;301
10;8 Stereoscopic PIV;305
10.1;8.1 Implementation of Stereoscopic PIV;306
10.1.1;8.1.1 Reconstruction Geometry;307
10.1.2;8.1.2 Stereo Viewing Calibration;310
10.1.3;8.1.3 Camera Calibration;312
10.1.4;8.1.4 Disparity Correction;316
10.1.5;8.1.5 Stereo-PIV in Liquids;321
10.1.6;8.1.6 General Recommendations for Stereo PIV;325
10.2;References;325
11;9 Techniques for 3D-PIV;328
11.1;9.1 Three-Component PIV Measurements in a Volume;328
11.2;9.2 Tomographic PIV;331
11.2.1;9.2.1 General Features;331
11.2.2;9.2.2 3D Object Reconstruction;342
11.2.3;9.2.3 3D Motion Analysis;352
11.2.4;9.2.4 4D-PIV Analysis;354
11.2.5;9.2.5 Media Gallery;354
11.3;9.3 Volumetric Particle Tracking Velocimetry;354
11.3.1;9.3.1 Overview of PTV Measurement Techniques;355
11.4;9.4 Shake-The-Box for Lagrangian Particle Tracking ƒ;360
11.4.1;9.4.1 Iterative Particle Reconstruction;361
11.4.2;9.4.2 Calibration of Optical Transfer Function;363
11.4.3;9.4.3 Shake-The-Box Algorithm;366
11.4.4;9.4.4 Shake-The-Box for multi-pulse systems: 3D Lagrangian particle tracking in high speed flows;370
11.4.5;9.4.5 Fitting Particle Positions Along the Trajectory;372
11.4.6;9.4.6 Data Assimilation for Interpolation to Cartesian Mesh;373
11.5;References;377
12;10 Micro-PIV;385
12.1;10.1 Introduction;385
12.1.1;10.1.1 Microfluidics Background;385
12.1.2;10.1.2 Microfluidic Diagnostics;387
12.2;10.2 Typical Implementation of 2D Planar ?PIV;388
12.3;10.3 2D Planar Micro-PIV Development;390
12.4;10.4 Imaging of Volume-Illuminated Small Particles in ?PIV;392
12.4.1;10.4.1 Three-Dimensional Diffraction Pattern;392
12.4.2;10.4.2 Depth of Field;394
12.4.3;10.4.3 Depth of Correlation;395
12.4.4;10.4.4 Particle Visibility;399
12.5;10.5 3D Micro-PIV;402
12.5.1;10.5.1 Overview;402
12.5.2;10.5.2 Epi-Fluorescence Scanning Microscopy;404
12.6;10.6 Multi Camera Approaches;405
12.6.1;10.6.1 (Scanning) Stereoscopic Imaging;405
12.6.2;10.6.2 Tomographic Imaging;406
12.7;10.7 Single Camera Approaches;408
12.7.1;10.7.1 Confocal Scanning Microscopy;408
12.7.2;10.7.2 Techniques Based on Out-of-Focus Imaging Without Aperture;410
12.7.3;10.7.3 Defocused Imaging with Aperture (Three-Pinhole Technique);411
12.7.4;10.7.4 Imaging Based on Aberrations (Astigmatism);415
12.7.5;10.7.5 General Defocusing Particle Tracking (GDPT);420
12.8;References;421
13;11 Applications: Boundary Layers;430
13.1;11.1 Boundary Layer Instabilities;430
13.2;11.2 Near Wall Turbulent Boundary Layer;433
13.3;11.3 Boundary Layer Characterization;436
13.4;11.4 Turbulent Boundary Layer Analysis by Means of Large-Scale PIV and Long-Range µPTV;441
13.5;11.5 Shock Wave/Turbulent Boundary Layer Interaction;447
13.6;References;451
14;12 Applications: Transonic Flows;455
14.1;12.1 Cascade Blade with Cooling Air Ejection;455
14.2;12.2 Transonic Flow Above an Airfoil;458
14.3;12.3 Transonic Flow Around a Fan Blade;460
14.4;12.4 Stereo PIV Applied to a Transonic Turbine;465
14.5;12.5 PIV Applied to a Transonic Centrifugal Compressor;470
14.6;12.6 Transonic Buffeting Measurements on a 1:60 Scale Ariane 5 Launcher Using High Speed PIV;477
14.7;12.7 Supersonic PIV Measurements on a Space Shuttle Model;482
14.8;12.8 PIV in a High-Speed Wind Tunnel;485
14.9;References;490
15;13 Applications: Helicopter Aerodynamics;493
15.1;13.1 Rotor Flow Investigation;493
15.2;13.2 Wind Tunnel Measurements of Rotor Blade Vortices;494
15.3;13.3 Measurement of Rotor Blade Vortices in Hover;497
15.3.1;13.3.1 The Experimental Setup;498
15.3.2;13.3.2 Evaluation and Analysis;499
15.3.3;13.3.3 Conclusions;503
15.4;13.4 Flow Diagnostics of Dynamic Stall on a Pitching Airfoil;504
15.5;13.5 Investigation of Laminar Separation Bubble on Helicopter Blades;509
15.6;References;513
16;14 Applications: Aeroacoustic and Pressure Measurements;516
16.1;14.1 PIV Applied to Aeroacoustics;516
16.2;14.2 PIV in Trailing-Edge Noise Estimation;520
16.3;14.3 A High-Speed PIV Study on Trailing-Edge Noise Sources;523
16.4;14.4 Three-Dimensional Vortex and Pressure Dynamics of Revolving Wings;527
16.5;14.5 PIV-Based Pressure and Load Determination in Transonic Aircraft Propellers;531
16.6;References;535
17;15 Applications: Flows at Different Temperatures;537
17.1;15.1 Study of Thermal Convection and Couette Flows;537
17.2;15.2 Combined PIT/PIV of Air Flows Using Thermochromic Liquid Crystals;542
17.3;15.3 PIV for Characterisation of Plasma Actuators;546
17.4;15.4 PIV in Reacting Flows;550
17.5;15.5 Flow Field Measurements Above Wing of High-Lift Aircraft Configuration at High Reynolds Number;555
17.6;References;558
18;16 Applications: Micro PIV;561
18.1;16.1 Flow in a Microchannel;561
18.1.1;16.1.1 Analytical Solution to Channel Flow;561
18.1.2;16.1.2 Experimental Measurements;563
18.2;16.2 Flow in an Electrothermal Micro-Vortex;565
18.3;16.3 Proper Orthogonal Reconstruction of 3D Micro PIV Data;569
18.4;16.4 Hybrid Experimental-Numerical Technique for 3D Reconstruction;570
18.5;16.5 Particle Velocimetry Using Evanescent-Wave Illumination for Near-Wall Flows;572
18.6;16.6 Measurements of the Flow around a Growing Hydrogen Bubble Using Long-Range µPIV and Shadowgraphy;579
18.7;16.7 In Vivo Blood Flow Measurements Using Micro-PIV;585
18.8;16.8 Reconstruction of Fluid Interfaces using 3D Astigmatic Particle Tracking Velocimetry;588
18.9;References;594
19;17 Applications: Stereo PIV and Multiplane Stereo PIV;599
19.1;17.1 Stereo PIV Applied to a Vortex Ring Flow;599
19.2;17.2 Multiplane Stereo PIV;604
19.3;References;610
20;18 Applications: Volumetric Flow Measurements;611
20.1;18.1 Vorticity Dynamics of Jets with Tomographic PIV;611
20.2;18.2 Near-Wall Turbulence Characterization in a Turbulent Boundary Layer Using Shake-The-Box;614
20.3;18.3 Large-Scale Volumetric Flow Measurement of a Thermal Plume Using Lagrangian Particle Tracking (Shake-The-Box);620
20.4;18.4 Lagrangian Particle Tracking in a Large-Scale Impinging Jet Using Shake-The-Box;624
20.5;18.5 3D Lagrangian Particle Tracking of a High-Subsonic Jet Using Four-Pulse Shake-The-Box;630
20.6;18.6 Flow over a Full-Scale Cyclist Model by Tomographic PTV;637
20.7;References;643
21;19 Related Techniques;647
21.1;19.1 Deformation Measurement by Digital Image Correlation (DIC);648
21.1.1;19.1.1 Deformation Measurement in a High-Pressure Facility;649
21.2;19.2 Background-Oriented Schlieren Technique (BOS);652
21.2.1;19.2.1 Introduction;652
21.2.2;19.2.2 Principle of the BOS Technique;652
21.2.3;19.2.3 Application of the BOS to Compressible Vortices;655
21.2.4;19.2.4 Conclusions;661
21.3;References;662
22;Appendix A Suggested Text Books;664
23;Appendix B Mathematical Appendix;667
23.1;B.1 Convolution with the Dirac Delta Distribution;667
23.2;B.2 Particle Images;667
23.3;B.3 Convolution of Gaussian Image Intensity Distributions;667
23.4;B.4 Expected Value;668
24;Appendix C List of Symbols and Acronyms;669
25;Index;677