Siegesmund / Snethlage Stone in Architecture

Properties, Durability
4th Auflage 2011
ISBN: 978-3-642-14475-2
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 552 Seiten

The weathering of historical buildings and, indeed, of monuments and sculptures of natural stone is a problem that has been encountered for hundreds of years. However, a dramatic increase in deterioration in the structure of our built heritage has been observed during the past century. To understand the complex interaction that the stone in a building suffers with its near environment (the building) and the macro environment (the local climate and atmospheric conditions) requires an interdisciplinary approach and the application of many disciplines. Climate change over the next 100 years is likely to have a range of direct and indirect impacts on many natural and physical environments, including the built environment.The protection of our architectural heritage has both cultural and historical importance, as well as substantial economic and ecological value. Large sums of money are being spent world-wide on measures for the preservation of monuments and historical buildings. The past few decades has seen an unprecedented level of research activity in this area, the results of which are often difficult to access and are summarized in the new edition of STONE IN ARCHITECTURE.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Siegesmund, Siegfried

Snethlage, Rolf

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;4
2;Contents;7
3;Contributors;8
4;1 Natural Stones in Architecture: Introduction;9
4.1;1.1 Introduction;9
4.2;1.2 Stone Provenance and Provinces;10
4.3;1.3 Natural Stone Structures;11
5;2 Building Stones;19
5.1;2.1 Building Stones as a Natural Resource;19
5.2;2.2 The Natural Building Stone Market;21
5.3;2.3 Architects Point of View;27
5.4;2.4 Confusion Caused by Commercial Names ;29
5.5;2.5 Geology of Building Stones Terminology;33
5.6;2.6 Rock-Forming Minerals ;34
5.6.1;2.6.1 Mineral Chemistry and Classification;34
5.6.2;2.6.2 Mineral Physics ;36
5.7;2.7 Definition and Origin of Rocks;39
5.8;2.8 Rock Fabrics ;41
5.8.1;2.8.1 Fabric Parameters;46
5.8.2;2.8.2 Shape-Preferred Orientations;48
5.8.3;2.8.3 Fracture Fabrics;48
5.9;2.9 Igneous Rocks;51
5.9.1;2.9.1 Plutonic Igneous Rocks;55
5.9.2;2.9.2 Volcanic and Subvolcanic Igneous Rocks;59
5.9.3;2.9.3 Pyroclastic Igneous Rocks;67
5.10;2.10 Metamorphic Rocks;69
5.11;2.11 Sedimentary Rocks;83
5.11.1;2.11.1 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks;84
5.11.1.1;2.11.1.1 Consolidated Detrital Sedimentary Rocks;86
5.11.2;2.11.2 Chemically or Biologically Precipitated Sedimentary Rocks;91
5.12;References;100
6;3 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks;104
6.1;3.1 Density, Mean Atomic Weight and Cation Packing Index;104
6.2;3.2 Porosity;114
6.3;3.3 Water Transport and Retention Properties;127
6.3.1;3.3.1 Capillary Water Absorption;129
6.3.2;3.3.2 Water Absorption by Total Immersion;133
6.3.3;3.3.3 Drying Characteristics;141
6.3.4;3.3.4 Moisture Adsorption;143
6.3.5;3.3.5 Water Vapor Diffusion;146
6.4;3.4 Thermal Properties;148
6.4.1;3.4.1 Thermal Conductivity;148
6.4.2;3.4.2 Thermal Expansion;153
6.4.2.1;3.4.2.1 Deformation of Stone Slabs;164
6.4.2.2;3.4.2.2 Thermal Behavior at Higher Temperatures;165
6.5;3.5 Hygric/Hydric Properties;168
6.6;3.6 Strength Properties;174
6.6.1;3.6.1 Compressive Strength;175
6.6.2;3.6.2 Tensile Strength;182
6.6.3;3.6.3 Flexural Strength;192
6.6.4;3.6.4 Hardness and Abrasion Resistance;196
6.6.5;3.6.5 Breaking Load at the Dowel Hole;202
6.7;3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Velocities and Youngs Modulus;207
6.7.1;3.7.1 Ultrasound Velocity and Lithology;209
6.7.2;3.7.2 Ultrasound Velocity -- Effect of Porosity and Fluids;212
6.7.3;3.7.3 Ultrasonic Velocity and Anisotropy ;213
6.7.4;3.7.4 Velocity and Degree of Weathering;220
6.8;References;222
7;4 Weathering and Deterioration;233
7.1;4.1 Introduction;233
7.2;4.2 Deterioration by Mechanical Processes;235
7.2.1;4.2.1 Thermal Cycling;236
7.2.2;4.2.2 Hygric and Hydric Swelling ;241
7.2.3;4.2.3 Crystal Growth ;246
7.2.4;4.2.4 Combination of Factors;254
7.2.4.1;4.2.4.1 Crystallization of Ice;256
7.2.4.2;4.2.4.2 Ice Crystallization in Combination with Clays or Salts;258
7.2.4.3;4.2.4.3 Salts and Moisture Changes;260
7.2.4.4;4.2.4.4 Further Examples;262
7.3;4.3 Deterioration by Chemical Processes;263
7.3.1;4.3.1 Mineral Dissolution Reactions;263
7.3.2;4.3.2 Surface Recession Rates on Calcareous Stone;268
7.4;4.4 Action of Salts;270
7.4.1;4.4.1 Sources of Salts in Building Materials;272
7.4.2;4.4.2 Common Salts in Building Stones;276
7.4.3;4.4.3 Interaction of Salts with the Environment;282
7.4.3.1;4.4.3.1 Single Salts;282
7.4.3.2;4.4.3.2 Salt Mixtures ;288
7.4.3.3;4.4.3.3 Modeling of Crystallization Pathway in Salt Mixtures;294
7.5;4.5 Biodeterioration of Stone;297
7.5.1;4.5.1 Organisms Involved in Biodeterioration;298
7.5.1.1;4.5.1.1 Bacteria ;298
7.5.1.2;4.5.1.2 Fungi ;301
7.5.1.3;4.5.1.3 Lichens ;303
7.5.2;4.5.2 Processes of Biodeterioration and Biodegradation ;304
7.5.2.1;4.5.2.1 Surface Alteration Phenomena and Biogenic Layers;304
7.5.2.2;4.5.2.2 Chemical and Mechanical Alterations;306
7.6;4.6 Final Remarks;308
7.7;References;310
8;5 Environment and Architectural Stone;323
8.1;5.1 Nature of Environmental Exposure;323
8.1.1;5.1.1 Heritage Climates;325
8.1.1.1;5.1.1.1 Key Climate Parameters;326
8.1.1.2;5.1.1.2 Types of Climate;327
8.1.2;5.1.2 Pollutants;330
8.1.2.1;5.1.2.1 Primary Pollutant History;330
8.1.2.2;5.1.2.2 Development of Photochemical Smog;331
8.1.2.3;5.1.2.3 Carbon Compounds as Air Pollutants;331
8.1.2.4;5.1.2.4 Nitrogen Compounds as Air Pollutants;333
8.1.2.5;5.1.2.5 Sulfur Compounds as Air Pollutants;334
8.1.2.6;5.1.2.6 Halogens as Air Pollutants;335
8.1.2.7;5.1.2.7 Oxidants in the Air Pollutants;335
8.1.2.8;5.1.2.8 Aerosols;335
8.2;5.2 Wind Driven Processes and Architectural Stone;336
8.3;5.3 Air Pollution and Architectural Stone;337
8.3.1;5.3.1 Sulfur Dioxide and Acid Rain;338
8.3.1.1;5.3.1.1 Coal smoke Laden Atmospheres ;338
8.3.1.2;5.3.1.2 Development of Black Crust;339
8.3.2;5.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides Nitric Acid and Ozone;341
8.3.3;5.3.3 Particulate Material and Crusts;342
8.4;5.4 Long Term Change;344
8.4.1;5.4.1 Historic Changes in Pressures on Architectural Stone;344
8.4.2;5.4.2 Future Climate Impacts;345
8.4.3;5.4.3 Future Changes in Air Pollution;347
8.4.4;5.4.4 Future Environment and Architectural Stone;349
8.5;References;350
9;6 Characterisation of Stone Deterioration on Buildings;353
9.1;6.1 Introduction;353
9.2;6.2 Classification of Weathering Forms;358
9.3;6.3 Condition Survey: Mapping of Weathering Forms;369
9.4;6.4 Material Testing, Scientific Investigations;375
9.4.1;6.4.1 General Remarks;375
9.4.2;6.4.2 On-Site Evaluation Tests (Non-destructive and Less-Destructive);376
9.4.2.1;6.4.2.1 Moisture Content;378
9.4.2.2;6.4.2.2 Analysis of Efflorescing Salts;378
9.4.2.3;6.4.2.3 Drilling Resistance;379
9.4.2.4;6.4.2.4 Schmidt Hammer and Duroscope;382
9.4.2.5;6.4.2.5 Ultrasonic Wave Measurements, Other Geophysical Methods;385
9.4.2.6;6.4.2.6 Capillary Water Uptake: Karsten Tube Measurements;393
9.4.2.7;6.4.2.7 Color Measurements;396
9.4.3;6.4.3 Laboratory Investigations;398
9.4.4;6.4.4 Biological Methods;404
9.4.4.1;6.4.4.1 Phenomenological Analysis and Microscopy;404
9.4.4.2;6.4.4.2 Classical Microbiological Methods;406
9.4.4.3;6.4.4.3 State of the Art Molecular Techniques;406
9.5;6.5 Synthesis: Discussion of Results, Recommendations for Restoration;409
9.6;References;410
10;7 Stone Conservation;417
10.1;7.1 Introduction;417
10.2;7.2 Historic and Actual Stone Conservation Compounds ;419
10.2.1;7.2.1 Limewater, Lime Wash and Barita Water;422
10.2.2;7.2.2 Linseed Oil;424
10.2.3;7.2.3 Fluosilicates ;425
10.2.4;7.2.4 Waterglass;426
10.2.5;7.2.5 Silica Sols ;428
10.2.6;7.2.6 Acrylates;429
10.2.7;7.2.7 Polyesterand Alkyd Resins;432
10.2.8;7.2.8 Epoxy Resins;434
10.2.9;7.2.9 Silicate Esters;436
10.2.10;7.2.10 Alkyl-triethoxysilane;439
10.3;7.3 Mapping of conservation interventions as a Planning Tool ;444
10.4;7.4 Cleaning Methods;448
10.4.1;7.4.1 Water Based Cleaning Techniques;451
10.4.2;7.4.2 Cleaning Poultices;454
10.4.3;7.4.3 Particle Jet and Micro Particle Jet;456
10.4.4;7.4.4 Laser Cleaning ;461
10.5;7.5 Desalination of Masonry ;468
10.6;7.6 Consolidation of Stone;472
10.6.1;1. Visual Appearance;483
10.6.2;2. Capillarity (Water Uptake Coefficient W and Water Penetration Coefficient B);483
10.6.3;3. Penetration Depth ;483
10.6.4;4. Hydric Dilatation;484
10.6.5;5. Number of Water Vapor Diffusion Resistance ;484
10.6.6;6. Biaxial Flexural Strength ( BFS );484
10.6.7;7. Modulus of Elasticity (E);485
10.7;7.7 Repair and Joint Mortar;487
10.7.1;7.7.1 Aggregates and Pigments;489
10.7.2;7.7.2 Water;490
10.7.3;7.7.3 Gypsum;491
10.7.4;7.7.4 Lime and Cement;491
10.7.5;7.7.5 Historic and Modern Additives;495
10.7.6;7.7.6 Compressive strength ßcs of Lime and Cement Mortars;497
10.7.7;7.7.7 Mortars Bound with Silica Gel;498
10.7.8;7.7.8 Assessment Criteria for Compatibility of Repair and Joint Mortars and Stone;500
10.7.9;7.7.9 Repair with Natural Stone;504
10.8;7.8 Paints on Stone;505
10.8.1;7.8.1 Binding Materials of Paints;509
10.8.2;7.8.2 Painting Techniques;511
10.8.3;7.8.3 Moisture transport properties of Paint Layers;513
10.8.4;7.8.4 Aspects of Conservation;515
10.9;7.9 Hydrophobic Treatment;516
10.9.1;7.9.1 Effectiveness of Hydrophobic Agents ;518
10.9.2;7.9.2 Practical Advises;522
10.9.3;7.9.3 Durability of Hydrophobic Treatment;526
10.9.4;7.9.4 General Aspects About Hydrophobation;529
10.10;7.10 Acrylic Resin Full Impregnation;529
10.11;7.11 Antimicrobial treatment and Preventive Measures;533
10.11.1;7.11.1 Climate, Humidity and Exposure;534
10.11.2;7.11.2 Cleaning and Biocidal Treatments;534
10.11.3;7.11.3 Bioremediation;538
10.12;7.12 Concluding Remarks;539
10.13;References;541
10.14;Subject Index;551