Gomarasca Basics of Geomatics

1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-1-4020-9014-1
Verlag: Springer Netherlands
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 656 Seiten

Geomatics is a neologism, the use of which is becoming increasingly widespread, even if it is not still universally accepted. It includes several disciplines and te- niques for the study of the Earth's surface and its environments, and computer science plays a decisive role. A more meaningful and appropriate expression is G- spatial Information or GeoInformation. Geo-spatial Information embeds topography in its more modern forms (measurements with electronic instrumentation, sophisticated techniques of data analysis and network compensation, global satellite positioning techniques, laser scanning, etc.), analytical and digital photogrammetry, satellite and airborne remote sensing, numerical cartography, geographical information systems, decision support systems, WebGIS, etc. These specialized elds are intimately interrelated in terms of both the basic science and the results pursued: rigid separation does not allow us to discover several common aspects and the fundamental importance assumed in a search for solutions in the complex survey context. The objective pursued by Mario A. Gomarasca, one that is only apparently modest, is to publish an integrated text on the surveying theme, containing simple and comprehensible concepts relevant to experts in Geo-spatial Information and/or speci cally in one of the disciplines that compose it. At the same time, the book is rigorous and synthetic, describing with precision the main instruments and methods connected to the multiple techniques available today.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Gomarasca, Mario A.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Foreword;5
2;Authors Preface;7
3;Contents;9
4;Acronyms;22
5;1 Geomatics;39
5.1;1.1 Computer Science;41
5.2;1.2 Data and Information;42
5.3;1.3 Geodesy and Cartography;43
5.4;1.4 Photogrammetry (Analogical, Analytical, Digital);45
5.5;1.5 Remote Sensing;45
5.6;1.6 Global Satellite Positioning Systems;47
5.7;1.7 Laser Scanning;48
5.8;1.8 Geographical Information Systems;48
5.9;1.9 Decision Support Systems and Expert Systems;49
5.10;1.10 Spatial Information;49
5.11;1.11 Geography;50
5.12;1.12 Ontology;51
5.13;1.13 The Geomatics Expert;52
5.14;1.14 Summary;53
6;Further Reading;54
7;2 Elements of Cartography;56
7.1;2.1 Milestones in the History of Cartography;57
7.2;2.2 Earth Shape: Ellipsoid and Geoid;65
7.3;2.3 Reference Systems;71
7.4;2.4 Ellipsoid and DATUM;72
7.5;2.5 Coordinate Systems;73
7.6;2.6 Ellipsoidic (or Geodetic or Geographic) Coordinates;73
7.7;2.7 Cartesian Geocentric Coordinates;76
7.8;2.8 Planar Cartographic Coordinates;77
7.9;2.9 Cartographic Projection;77
7.9.1;2.9.1 Perspective Projection;79
7.9.2;2.9.2 Development Projection;80
7.10;2.10 Examples of Cartographic Projections;80
7.10.1;2.10.1 Mercator Map;81
7.10.2;2.10.2 Gauss Map;81
7.10.3;2.10.3 Polar Stereographic Projection;84
7.10.4;2.10.4 Lambert Conical Conformal Projection;84
7.10.5;2.10.5 Earth Globe Projection: The Planisphere;84
7.11;2.11 Reference Scale;84
7.11.1;2.11.1 Scale Factor or Scale of Reduction;85
7.11.2;2.11.2 Graphical Scale;85
7.11.3;2.11.3 Area Scale;86
7.11.4;2.11.4 Relative Scale;86
7.12;2.12 Cartography in the World;86
7.12.1;2.12.1 Cartography Projection in the World;87
7.12.2;2.12.2 International Reference Systems;87
7.12.2.1;2.12.2.1 Geocentric System WGS84;87
7.12.2.2;2.12.2.2 Unified European Reference System (ED50);90
7.12.2.3;2.12.2.3 North American Datum (NAD83);90
7.12.2.4;2.12.2.4 Geocentric Reference System for the Americas (SIRGAS);91
7.13;2.13 Transformation Among Reference Systems;92
7.14;2.14 Map Classification;92
7.14.1;2.14.1 Basic and Thematic Cartography;92
7.14.1.1;2.14.1.1 Topographic Maps;93
7.14.1.2;2.14.1.2 Thematic Maps;93
7.14.2;2.14.2 Classification According to Scale;95
7.14.3;2.14.3 Maps from Satellite;96
7.14.3.1;2.14.3.1 Global Scale;96
7.14.3.2;2.14.3.2 Regional Scale;98
7.14.3.3;2.14.3.3 Local Scale;98
7.15;2.15 Technology and Cartography: Numerical and Digital Cartography;99
7.15.1;2.15.1 Traditional Cartography;99
7.15.2;2.15.2 Automatic Cartography;100
7.15.3;2.15.3 Numerical Cartography;100
7.15.3.1;2.15.3.1 Numerical Data Format;101
7.15.3.2;2.15.3.2 Information Content of the Numerical Data;101
7.15.3.3;2.15.3.3 Code System;103
7.15.3.4;2.15.3.4 Data Organization;103
7.15.3.5;2.15.3.5 General Quality Criteria and Map Production Problems;104
7.15.3.6;2.15.3.6 Production Methods;104
7.15.3.7;2.15.3.7 Data Transfer;109
7.16;2.16 Map Reading;109
7.16.1;2.16.1 Elements of the Natural Landscape;111
7.16.2;2.16.2 Elements of the Anthropic Landscape;111
7.16.3;2.16.3 Generic Nomenclature;112
7.17;2.17 Summary;112
8;Further Reading;113
9;3 Elements of Photogrammetry;115
9.1;3.1 Milestones in the History of Photography;115
9.2;3.2 Milestones in the History of Photogrammetry;120
9.3;3.3 General Concepts;122
9.4;3.4 Traditional Photogrammetry;124
9.4.1;3.4.1 Stereoscopy and Restitution;125
9.4.2;3.4.2 Geometrical Basics of Photogrammetry;129
9.4.3;3.4.3 The Real Model: Distortion and Calibration;132
9.4.4;3.4.4 Instruments and Modality of Acquisition;132
9.4.5;3.4.5 Flight Plan;137
9.4.6;3.4.6 Artificial Stereoscopy Techniques;138
9.4.7;3.4.7 Image Orientation and Stereo-plotting;140
9.4.7.1;3.4.7.1 Stereo-plotters;144
9.5;3.5 Digital Photogrammetry;144
9.5.1;3.5.1 Traditional and Digital Systems;145
9.5.2;3.5.2 Format of Digital Images;147
9.5.3;3.5.3 Digital Images' Metric Content;148
9.6;3.6 Digital Photogrammetry Devices;149
9.6.1;3.6.1 Digital Photogrammetric System;150
9.7;3.7 Digital Orthophoto;150
9.8;3.8 Oblique Photographs;153
9.9;3.9 Satellite Sensors for Photogrammetric Application;154
9.9.1;3.9.1 Parametric Approach;155
9.9.2;3.9.2 Non-parametric Approach;155
9.10;3.10 Summary;155
10;Further Reading;156
11;4 Elements of Remote Sensing;158
11.1;4.1 Milestones in the History of Remote Sensing;159
11.2;4.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum;162
11.3;4.3 Optical Passive Remote Sensing;165
11.3.1;4.3.1 Sources of Electromagnetic Waves: The Sun and the Earth;165
11.3.2;4.3.2 Physical Principles;166
11.3.2.1;4.3.2.1 Kirchhoff's Radiation Law;168
11.3.2.2;4.3.2.2 Planck's Radiation Law;170
11.3.2.3;4.3.2.3 Stefan'Boltzmann's Radiation Law;171
11.3.2.4;4.3.2.4 Wien's Displacement Law;172
11.3.2.5;4.3.2.5 Terrestrial Albedo;173
11.3.3;4.3.3 Visible Radiation and Colour;173
11.3.3.1;4.3.3.1 Colour Definition;176
11.3.3.2;4.3.3.2 Chromaticity Coordinates;176
11.3.3.3;4.3.3.3 Hue, Saturation, Intensity;176
11.3.3.4;4.3.3.4 CIE System;177
11.3.4;4.3.4 Radiometric Terminology;178
11.3.4.1;4.3.4.1 Radiance: The Radiometric Term Measured in Remote Sensing;180
11.3.5;4.3.5 Spectral Response;182
11.3.6;4.3.6 Electromagnetic Radiation--Atmosphere Interaction;183
11.3.6.1;4.3.6.1 Atmospheric Effects in the Visible;186
11.3.6.2;4.3.6.2 Atmospheric Effects in the Thermal Infrared;189
11.4;4.4 Active Remote Sensing in the Microwave;190
11.4.1;4.4.1 Radar Versus Optical Systems;198
11.4.2;4.4.2 Radar Systems;200
11.4.2.1;4.4.2.1 Typology of Radar Sensors;203
11.4.2.2;4.4.2.2 Deformation of Radar Images;204
11.4.3;4.4.3 Radar Techniques;206
11.4.3.1;4.4.3.1 Radar Interferometry;207
11.4.3.2;4.4.3.2 Digital Surface Model (DSM) Generation;212
11.4.3.3;4.4.3.3 Applications of Differential Interferometry;213
11.4.3.4;4.4.3.4 In-Field Differential Interferometry;215
11.5;4.5 Summary;216
12;Further Reading;217
13;5 Elements of Informatics;220
13.1;5.1 Milestones in the History of Informatics;220
13.2;5.2 Architecture of the Computing Systems;223
13.2.1;5.2.1 Algorithm;224
13.2.2;5.2.2 Computer Hardware;225
13.2.2.1;5.2.2.1 Digital Code;225
13.2.2.2;5.2.2.2 Von Neumann Architecture;226
13.2.2.3;5.2.2.3 Computer Systems;230
13.2.3;5.2.3 Computer Software;231
13.2.3.1;5.2.3.1 Operating Systems;233
13.2.3.2;5.2.3.2 Databases;237
13.2.3.3;5.2.3.3 Database Management Software;243
13.3;5.3 Network Architecture;243
13.3.1;5.3.1 Transmission Mode;244
13.3.2;5.3.2 Network Logical Scheme;245
13.3.3;5.3.3 Network Typology and Digital Transmission (Classification WAN/LAN);247
13.3.3.1;5.3.3.1 Local Network Configuration (LAN);247
13.3.4;5.3.4 Network Topological Relationships;248
13.3.5;5.3.5 Communication Protocols;249
13.4;5.4 Network Infrastructures;250
13.4.1;5.4.1 Internet;250
13.4.2;5.4.2 World Wide Web;250
13.4.3;5.4.3 WWW Navigation;252
13.4.4;5.4.4 Intranet;253
13.4.5;5.4.5 Network Security;253
13.4.6;5.4.6 Wireless;253
13.4.7;5.4.7 Search Engine;255
13.4.8;5.4.8 Groupware;256
13.4.9;5.4.9 Web 2.0 or Internet 2.0;257
13.4.10;5.4.10 Blog;258
13.5;5.5 Evolution of Hardware and Software in Geomatics;258
13.5.1;5.5.1 Technology Evolution in Remote Sensed Data;259
13.5.2;5.5.2 Configuration of a Geomatics System;261
13.5.2.1;5.5.2.1 Working Station;261
13.5.2.2;5.5.2.2 Consideration About Software;262
13.6;5.6 Summary;263
14;Further Reading;264
15;6 Acquisition Systems;266
15.1;6.1 Imagery Generation;267
15.1.1;6.1.1 Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) Detector;270
15.1.2;6.1.2 Acquisition Geometry;271
15.1.2.1;6.1.2.1 Central Matrix Acquisition Geometry;272
15.1.2.2;6.1.2.2 Punctual Scan Sensor (Whiskbroom);272
15.1.2.3;6.1.2.3 Linear Scan Sensor (Pushbroom);273
15.2;6.2 Instrument Resolution;275
15.3;6.3 Earth Observation Satellites;280
15.3.1;6.3.1 History of the Space Missions;282
15.3.2;6.3.2 Satellite Platforms;286
15.3.2.1;6.3.2.1 Spectral Intervals;288
15.4;6.4 Earth Observation Space Programmes;291
15.4.1;6.4.1 EUMETSAT: Geostationary Meteorological Satellites Network;292
15.4.2;6.4.2 NOAA Meteorological Programme;293
15.4.3;6.4.3 NASA (USA) Space Programme;294
15.4.3.1;6.4.3.1 Landsat Series;295
15.4.3.2;6.4.3.2 Landsat 7;297
15.4.3.3;6.4.3.3 EOS-AM Terra;298
15.4.3.4;6.4.3.4 EOS-AM Aqua;300
15.4.3.5;6.4.3.5 EOS-AM Aura;301
15.4.3.6;6.4.3.6 Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) Satellite;301
15.4.4;6.4.4 ESA (European Union) Space Programme;302
15.4.4.1;6.4.4.1 ENVISAT;304
15.4.4.2;6.4.4.2 ERS-1 and ERS-2 Satellites;307
15.4.5;6.4.5 ASI (Italy) Space Programme;308
15.4.5.1;6.4.5.1 COSMO/SkyMed;308
15.4.6;6.4.6 CNES (France) Space Programme;311
15.4.6.1;6.4.6.1 SPOT Satellites;312
15.4.6.2;6.4.6.2 Jason;314
15.4.6.3;6.4.6.3 Pleiade;314
15.4.7;6.4.7 FSA (Russia) Space Programme;315
15.4.7.1;6.4.7.1 MIR Space Station;315
15.4.7.2;6.4.7.2 Priroda;316
15.4.7.3;6.4.7.3 Resurs-01;317
15.4.7.4;6.4.7.4 Photographic Cameras on Board Satellites;318
15.4.7.5;6.4.7.5 Resurs-DK;319
15.4.8;6.4.8 ISRO (India) Space Programme;321
15.4.9;6.4.9 JAXA (Japan) Space Programme;324
15.4.9.1;6.4.9.1 ADEOS-II;325
15.4.9.2;6.4.9.2 ALOS;327
15.4.9.3;6.4.9.3 TRMM;328
15.4.10;6.4.10 CSA (Canada) Space Programme;328
15.4.10.1;6.4.10.1 Radarsat;328
15.4.11;6.4.11 KARI (South Korea) Space Programme;329
15.4.12;6.4.12 The China--Brazil Cooperative (CBERS) Space Programme;330
15.4.13;6.4.13 CONAE (Argentina) Space Programme;331
15.4.14;6.4.14 International Space Station (ISS);332
15.4.15;6.4.15 Radar Missions on the Space Shuttle;333
15.4.16;6.4.16 Commercial Satellites;334
15.4.16.1;6.4.16.1 IKONOS;337
15.4.16.2;6.4.16.2 QuickBird;339
15.4.16.3;6.4.16.3 OrbView;339
15.4.16.4;6.4.16.4 EROS;340
15.4.16.5;6.4.16.5 Rapideye;341
15.4.16.6;6.4.16.6 TerraSAR-X;342
15.4.17;6.4.17 Other Missions;342
15.5;6.5 Airborne Systems;343
15.5.1;6.5.1 Aerophotogrammetric Digital Cameras;344
15.5.1.1;6.5.1.1 Airborne Digital Sensor (ADS40);345
15.5.1.2;6.5.1.2 Modular Digital Camera (DMC);346
15.5.1.3;6.5.1.3 High-Resolution Stereo Camera-Airborne (HRSC-A);347
15.5.1.4;6.5.1.4 Linear or Matrix;349
15.5.2;6.5.2 Hyperspectral Sensors;351
15.5.3;6.5.3 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles;355
15.5.3.1;6.5.3.1 Tactical Group, the Mini-UAVs;356
15.5.4;6.5.4 Laser;358
15.5.4.1;6.5.4.1 Laser Scanning System;362
15.5.4.2;6.5.4.2 Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) Acquisition;363
15.6;6.6 Instruments for In-Field Acquisition;364
15.6.1;6.6.1 Photographic Films;364
15.6.2;6.6.2 Digital Photo Camera;365
15.6.3;6.6.3 Terrestrial Laser Scanner;367
15.6.4;6.6.4 Video Cameras and Thermal Cameras;368
15.6.5;6.6.5 Radiometers;368
15.6.5.1;6.6.5.1 Photometers;369
15.6.5.2;6.6.5.2 Spectroradiometers;370
15.7;6.7 Summary;370
16;Further Reading;372
17;7 Satellite Positioning Systems;376
17.1;7.1 NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS);376
17.1.1;7.1.1 The GPS Signal (NAVSTAR);379
17.1.2;7.1.2 GPS Measurement;380
17.1.2.1;7.1.2.1 Code or Pseudo-distance Measurements;382
17.1.2.2;7.1.2.2 Phase Measurement;382
17.1.3;7.1.3 GPS Operative Mode;383
17.1.4;7.1.4 GPS Errors;386
17.1.4.1;7.1.4.1 Selective Availability (SA);386
17.1.4.2;7.1.4.2 Systematic Errors;388
17.1.4.3;7.1.4.3 Accidental Errors;388
17.1.4.4;7.1.4.4 Orbital Errors;389
17.1.4.5;7.1.4.5 Troposphere and Ionosphere Errors;389
17.1.5;7.1.5 GPS Geodetic Reference System;390
17.1.6;7.1.6 Receivers;391
17.2;7.2 GLONASS Global Positioning System;391
17.2.1;7.2.1 GLONASS Characteristics;392
17.2.2;7.2.2 GLONASS Versus NAVSTAR GPS;394
17.3;7.3 Galileo Global Positioning System;395
17.3.1;7.3.1 Positioning Services;396
17.3.2;7.3.2 Technical Characteristics;398
17.3.3;7.3.3 Applications;400
17.4;7.4 Summary;401
18;Further Reading;403
19;8 Digital Image Processing;404
19.1;8.1 Image Transformation;406
19.2;8.2 Pre-processing;407
19.2.1;8.2.1 Radiometric Pre-processing;407
19.2.1.1;8.2.1.1 Radiometric Effect Depending on the Sensor;408
19.2.1.2;8.2.1.2 Radiometric Effects Depending on the System Geometry;412
19.2.1.3;8.2.1.3 Atmospheric Effects;413
19.2.2;8.2.2 Atmospheric Correction;414
19.2.2.1;8.2.2.1 Computation of the Surface Reflectance;415
19.2.2.2;8.2.2.2 Computation of the Surface Temperature;417
19.2.3;8.2.3 Geometric Pre-processing;418
19.2.3.1;8.2.3.1 Distortions Depending on the Platform Altitude, Velocity and Attitude;418
19.2.3.2;8.2.3.2 Panoramic Distortion;419
19.2.3.3;8.2.3.3 Distortions Depending on the Earth's Rotation;419
19.2.3.4;8.2.3.4 Distortions Depending on the Earth's Curvature;420
19.2.4;8.2.4 Correction of the Geometric Distortion;421
19.2.4.1;8.2.4.1 Image Registration;421
19.2.4.2;8.2.4.2 Resampling;423
19.2.4.3;8.2.4.3 Orographic Effect and Orthoprojection;424
19.3;8.3 Digital Image Processing;425
19.3.1;8.3.1 Spectral Analysis Techniques;426
19.3.1.1;8.3.1.1 Look-Up Tables (LUT);427
19.3.1.2;8.3.1.2 Image Histogram;427
19.3.1.3;8.3.1.3 Scatterogram;430
19.3.1.4;8.3.1.4 Radiance Profile;431
19.3.1.5;8.3.1.5 Density Slicing;432
19.3.1.6;8.3.1.6 Contrast Enhancement Techniques;434
19.3.1.7;8.3.1.7 Spatial or Geometric Transformation Techniques;440
19.3.1.8;8.3.1.8 Pan-Sharpening Technique;445
19.3.2;8.3.2 Qualitative Interpretation of the Images (Photo-interpretation);446
19.3.2.1;8.3.2.1 False-Colour Composites;448
19.3.2.2;8.3.2.2 Visual Processes of the Interpretation;449
19.3.2.3;8.3.2.3 Elements in Image Interpretation;450
19.3.2.4;8.3.2.4 Resolution;466
19.3.2.5;8.3.2.5 Vegetation Spectral Behaviour;469
19.3.2.6;8.3.2.6 Soil Spectral Behaviour;473
19.3.2.7;8.3.2.7 Water Spectral Behaviour;475
19.3.2.8;8.3.2.8 Multi-temporal Images;478
19.4;8.4 Quantitative Analysis;479
19.4.1;8.4.1 Multispectral Transformation of the Images (Vegetation Indices);479
19.4.1.1;8.4.1.1 Indices with Conservation of the Original Radiometric Data;482
19.4.1.2;8.4.1.2 Indices with Modification of the Radiometric Information;485
19.4.2;8.4.2 Classification Techniques;489
19.4.2.1;8.4.2.1 Unsupervised Classification;491
19.4.2.2;8.4.2.2 Supervised Classification;494
19.4.3;8.4.3 Qualitative and Quantitative Analyses of Radar Images;502
19.4.4;8.4.4 Crop Backscattered Energy;502
19.4.5;8.4.5 Soil and Water Backscattered Energy;505
19.4.6;8.4.6 Radar Images Classification;505
19.4.6.1;8.4.6.1 Pixel-Based Approach;505
19.4.6.2;8.4.6.2 Field-Based Approach;506
19.4.6.3;8.4.6.3 Combined Use of SAR Data and Optical Multispectral Data for Crop Classification;507
19.4.7;8.4.7 Assessment of Classification Accuracy;508
19.5;8.5 Summary;510
20;Further Reading;511
21;9 Elements of Geographical Information Systems;515
21.1;9.1 Typology of the Geographical Information Systems;516
21.2;9.2 Format of the Geographical Data;518
21.3;9.3 GIS Components and Structure;520
21.3.1;9.3.1 Hardware;521
21.3.2;9.3.2 Software;521
21.3.3;9.3.3 Input Data;522
21.4;9.4 The Organizational Context;524
21.4.1;9.4.1 Databases and Structures;525
21.5;9.5 Spatial Data Models;525
21.5.1;9.5.1 Vector Format;525
21.5.2;9.5.2 Raster or Grid Model;527
21.6;9.6 Integration of Vector and Raster Data;528
21.7;9.7 Methods of Spatial Data Analysis;530
21.7.1;9.7.1 Spatial Data Analysis;532
21.7.2;9.7.2 Attributes Analysis;532
21.7.3;9.7.3 Integrated Analysis of Spatial Data and Attributes;533
21.8;9.8 Representation Methods of the Earths Surface;538
21.8.1;9.8.1 Digital Terrain Models;540
21.8.1.1;9.8.1.1 DSM/DTM or DEM Production Steps;541
21.8.1.2;9.8.1.2 3D Coordinates of the Height Spots;546
21.8.1.3;9.8.1.3 Sampling Methodologies;546
21.9;9.9 GIS Evolution;553
21.9.1;9.9.1 GIS Object Oriented;554
21.9.2;9.9.2 Decision Support Systems (DSS);555
21.9.3;9.9.3 Expert Systems (ES);556
21.9.4;9.9.4 Role of the ES in Image Interpretation and Classification;559
21.9.4.1;9.9.4.1 Knowledge Representation: Role of the Fuzzy Logic;560
21.9.4.2;9.9.4.2 Knowledge Acquisition;562
21.10;9.10 Error, Accuracy, Precision and Tolerance;563
21.10.1;9.10.1 Definitions;563
21.10.2;9.10.2 Types of Error;565
21.10.3;9.10.3 Sources of Error;565
21.10.3.1;9.10.3.1 Evident Sources of Error;565
21.10.3.2;9.10.3.2 Errors Depending on Natural Variation and on Measurement Methods;567
21.10.3.3;9.10.3.3 Errors in the Processing;567
21.10.3.4;9.10.3.4 Error Propagation;568
21.11;9.11 Metadata and Data Quality;569
21.12;9.12 Geographical Information Systems Distribution on the Web;572
21.12.1;9.12.1 Requirements and Purposes of a WebGIS;573
21.12.2;9.12.2 Federated and Distributed Systems;574
21.12.3;9.12.3 Structure of GIS Diffusion Systems on the Web;575
21.12.4;9.12.4 Architecture of a Web-Oriented GIS;577
21.12.5;9.12.5 Applicative Software;579
21.12.6;9.12.6 Data Interoperability;579
21.12.7;9.12.7 XML Standard;580
21.12.8;9.12.8 Geography Markup Language (GML);581
21.12.9;9.12.9 Instruments for Graphical Representation;583
21.12.10;9.12.10 Graphical Representation of Geographic Elements;583
21.13;9.13 Spatial Data Infrastructure;584
21.13.1;9.13.1 GSDI;584
21.13.2;9.13.2 Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community -- INSPIRE;586
21.13.3;9.13.3 GEO and GEOSS;587
21.13.4;9.13.4 Global Monitoring for Environment and Security, GMES;588
21.14;9.14 Summary;589
22;Further Reading;591
23;10 Land Use/Land Cover Classification Systems;595
23.1;10.1 Global Networks in Land Cover;595
23.1.1;10.1.1 Terminology: Land Cover and Land Use;596
23.1.1.1;10.1.1.1 The Problem of the Legend;597
23.1.2;10.1.2 Land Cover Classification Systems Based on Pre-defined Classes and Legends;597
23.1.2.1;10.1.2.1 USGS Land Use/Land Cover Classification Systems (1972/1976);597
23.1.2.2;10.1.2.2 EarthSat GeoCover Land Cover Legend (1990);599
23.1.2.3;10.1.2.3 National Land Cover Data (NLCD) Classification System (1992);600
23.1.2.4;10.1.2.4 UNEP/FAO Land Cover Legend (1993);601
23.1.2.5;10.1.2.5 USGS and IGBP-DIS Land Cover Obtained by Modification of USGS 1976 Classification (1996);602
23.1.2.6;10.1.2.6 South African Standard Land Cover Classification System (1996);603
23.1.2.7;10.1.2.7 GOFC/GOLD Land and Forest Cover Classification (1998);604
23.1.2.8;10.1.2.8 Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) Standard (1998);604
23.1.2.9;10.1.2.9 CORINE Programme;605
23.1.3;10.1.3 Land Cover Classification Systems Based on Diagnostic Independent Criteria;617
23.1.3.1;10.1.3.1 Africover Project;617
23.2;10.2 Summary;629
24;Further Reading;630
25;Colour Plates;633
26;Index;676