Homewood / Kristjanson / Lozny Staying Maasai?

Livelihoods, Conservation and Development in East African Rangelands
2009
ISBN: 978-0-387-87492-0
Verlag: Springer US
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 5, 418 Seiten

Reihe: Studies in Human Ecology and Adaptation

The area of eastern Africa, which includes Tanzania and Kenya, is known for its savannas, wildlife and tribal peoples. Alongside these iconic images lie concerns about environmental degradation, declining wildlife populations, and about worsening poverty of pastoral peoples. East Africa presents in microcosm the paradox so widely seen across sub Saharan Africa, where the world's poorest and most vulnerable populations live alongside some of the world's most outstanding biodiversity resources. Over the last decade or so, community conservation has emerged as a way out of poverty and environmental problems for these rural populations, focusing on the sustainable use of wildlife to generate income that could underpin equally sustainable development. Given the enduring interest in East African wildlife, and the very large tourist income it generates, these communities and ecosystems seem a natural case for green development based on community conservation. This volume is focused on the livelihoods of the Maasai in two different countries - Kenya and Tanzania. This cross-border comparative analysis looks at what people do, why they choose to do it, with what success and with what implications for wildlife. The comparative approach makes it possible to unpack the interaction of conservation and development, to identify the main drivers of livelihoods change and the main outcomes of wildlife conservation or other land use policies, while controlling for confounding factors in these semi-arid and perennially variable systems. This synthesis draws out lessons about the successes and failures of community conservation-based approach to development in Maasailand under different national political and economic contexts and different local social and historical particularities.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Lozny, Ludomir

Homewood, Katherine

Kristjanson, Patti

Trench, P.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Foreword;6
2;Acknowledgements;10
3;Contents;11
4;Contributors;14
5;Chapter 1;16
5.1;Changing Land Use, Livelihoods and Wildlife Conservation in Maasailand;16
5.1.1;1.1 Introduction;16
5.1.2;1.2 The setting;18
5.1.2.1;1.2.1 Policy and Institutional Context of Land Use and Livelihood Change;21
5.1.2.1.1;1.2.1.1 Land Tenure;21
5.1.2.1.2;1.2.1.2 Agriculture and Livestock;22
5.1.2.1.3;1.2.1.3 Wildlife and Conservation Policy;23
5.1.2.1.4;1.2.1.4 Institutional Context of Maasai Diversification and Land Use Change;26
5.1.2.2;1.2.2 Changing Land Use and Livelihoods in Maasailand;27
5.1.2.3;1.2.3 Wildlife Conservation as a Dimension of Pastoralist Development;29
5.1.3;1.3 A conceptual framework;30
5.1.3.1;1.3.1 The Approach;31
5.1.3.1.1;1.3.1.1 Modeling Land Use Decisions in Maasailand;32
5.1.3.2;1.3.2 Theoretical Background;36
5.1.3.2.1;1.3.2.1 Development;36
5.1.3.2.2;1.3.2.2 Political Ecology;37
5.1.3.2.3;1.3.2.3 Ecological Economics and Community Conservation;39
5.1.3.2.4;1.3.2.4 Livelihoods and Diversification;40
5.1.3.2.4.1;Analyzing Livelihoods;40
5.1.3.2.4.2;Land Tenure;41
5.1.3.2.4.3;Labour;43
5.1.3.2.4.4;Capital;44
5.1.3.2.5;1.3.2.5 Diversification and Intensification;44
5.1.3.2.6;1.3.2.6 Triggers and Drivers of Change;46
5.1.4;1.4 Structure and Sequence of this Volume;47
5.1.5;References;50
6;Chapter 2;58
6.1;Methods in the Analysis of Maasai Livelihoods;58
6.1.1;2.1 Introduction;58
6.1.2;2.2 Design and Implementation of Field Surveys;59
6.1.2.1;2.2.1 Household Sampling Strategies;62
6.1.2.1.1;2.2.1.1 Definition of ‘Household';62
6.1.2.1.2;2.2.1.2 Villages and Group Ranches;62
6.1.2.1.3;2.2.1.3 Sample Selection;63
6.1.2.2;2.2.2 Characterizing the Biophysical and Socio-Demographic Environment;65
6.1.2.2.1;2.2.2.1 Spatial Variables;65
6.1.2.2.2;2.2.2.2 Household-Level Variables;66
6.1.2.3;2.2.3 Family Portraits;69
6.1.2.4;2.2.4 Institutional and Policy Analyses;70
6.1.2.5;2.2.5 Participatory- and Action- Research;71
6.1.3;2.3 Characterizing Livelihood Strategies;71
6.1.3.1;2.3.1 Identifying Groups of Pastoralists with Similar Livelihood Strategies;71
6.1.3.2;2.3.2 Variables Representing Livelihood Strategies of Maasai Pastoralists;74
6.1.4;2.4 Household Choice of Livelihood Strategy;75
6.1.5;2.5 Factors Influencing Income and Wealth Levels;76
6.1.6;2.6 Discussion;77
6.1.6.1;2.6.1 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework;78
6.1.6.2;2.6.2 Evaluating Community-Based Conservation;79
6.1.6.3;2.6.3 Potential for Statistical and Simulation Modelling;79
6.1.7;References;80
7;Part I: Family Portraits - Mara;83
7.1;Chapter 3;91
7.1.1;Maasai Mara - Land Privatization and Wildlife Declinc: Can Conservation Pay Its Way?;91
7.1.2;3.1 Introduction;91
7.1.2.1;3.1.1 The Setting;92
7.1.2.2;3.1.2 Historical Changes in Policy and Land Cover;94
7.1.2.3;3.1.3 Study Sites;95
7.1.3;3.2 The study;96
7.1.3.1;3.2.1 Methods;97
7.1.3.1.1;3.2.1.1 Data Collection;97
7.1.3.1.2;3.2.1.2 Clustering of 2004 Households to Define Livelihood Strategies;98
7.1.3.1.3;3.2.1.3 Regression Analysis of Household Net Income Against Explanatory Variables;99
7.1.4;3.3 Livelihood Strategies in the Mara in 2004;100
7.1.4.1;3.3.1 Factors Influencing Gross Household Income;105
7.1.5;3.4 Trends in Mara Livelihoods, 1998–2004;108
7.1.5.1;3.4.1 Land Allocation;108
7.1.5.2;3.4.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics;109
7.1.5.3;3.4.3 Livelihoods;109
7.1.5.3.1;3.4.3.1 Pastoralism;110
7.1.5.3.2;3.4.3.2 Small-Scale Cultivation;113
7.1.5.3.3;3.4.3.3 Land Leasing and Wheat Cultivation;114
7.1.6;3.5 Conservation Dividends, Rents and Politics: Wildlife Associations and Conservancies;115
7.1.7;3.6 Discussion;120
7.1.7.1;3.6.1 Livestock;120
7.1.7.2;3.6.2 Wildlife;120
7.1.7.3;3.6.3 Off-Land Employment;123
7.1.7.4;3.6.4 Cultivation;123
7.1.7.5;3.6.5 Land Tenure, Land Use, Income and Livelihoods;124
7.1.8;3.7 Conclusion;125
7.1.9;References;126
7.2;Chapter 4;129
7.2.1;Assessing Returns to Land and Changing Livelihood Strategies in Kitengela;129
7.2.1.1;4.1 Introduction;129
7.2.1.2;4.2 The Study – objectives, approach and methods’;132
7.2.1.2.1;4.2.1 Objectives;132
7.2.1.2.2;4.2.2 Study Sites;133
7.2.1.2.3;4.2.3 Approach and Methods;133
7.2.1.2.3.1;4.2.3.1 Selection of Households and Data;134
7.2.1.2.3.2;4.2.3.2 Analytical Methods;134
7.2.1.2.3.2.1;Cluster Analysis;134
7.2.1.2.3.2.2;Regression Analysis;135
7.2.1.3;4.3 Livelihood strategies, land ownership and determinants of wealth in Kitengela;136
7.2.1.3.1;4.3.1 Household Characteristics;136
7.2.1.3.2;4.3.2 Returns to Different Livelihood Options;136
7.2.1.3.2.1;4.3.2.1 Livestock Returns;137
7.2.1.3.2.2;4.3.2.2 Livestock Input Costs;139
7.2.1.3.2.3;4.3.2.3 Cropping Returns;139
7.2.1.3.2.4;4.3.2.4 Returns to Off-Land and Wildlife Conservation-Related Activities;140
7.2.1.3.3;4.3.3 Land Ownership and Distribution;140
7.2.1.3.4;4.3.4 Livelihood Strategies;143
7.2.1.3.4.1;4.3.4.1 Land and Livelihoods;149
7.2.1.3.5;4.3.5 Determinants of Household Income;150
7.2.1.3.5.1;4.3.5.1 Determinants of Overall Income;150
7.2.1.3.5.2;4.3.5.2 Determinants of Livestock Income;152
7.2.1.3.5.3;4.3.5.3 Determinants of Off-Land, Crop and Wildlife Conservation Income;152
7.2.1.3.5.4;4.3.5.4 Determinants of Livestock Wealth;153
7.2.1.4;4.4 Conclusions;153
7.2.1.5;References;162
8;Part II: Family Portraits - Amboseli;164
8.1;Chapter 5;173
8.1.1;Pathways of Continuity and Change: Maasai Livelihoods in Amboseli, Kajiado District, Kenya;173
8.1.1.1;5.1 Introduction;173
8.1.1.1.1;5.1.1 Study Site Description;174
8.1.1.1.2;5.1.2 Critical History in the Greater Amboseli Ecosystem;177
8.1.1.1.3;5.1.3 Methodology;179
8.1.1.2;5.2 Amboseli Livelihoods;182
8.1.1.2.1;5.2.1 Study Area Analyses;182
8.1.1.2.1.1;5.2.1.1 Livestock Production;182
8.1.1.2.1.2;5.2.1.2 Agriculture;183
8.1.1.2.1.3;5.2.1.3 Off-Land Activities;186
8.1.1.2.2;5.2.2 Cluster Analyses;187
8.1.1.2.2.1;5.2.2.1 Gross Returns from Activities Across Household Clusters;187
8.1.1.2.2.2;5.2.2.2 What Proportional Contribution do Activities Make to Gross Household Incomes?;191
8.1.1.2.2.3;5.2.2.3 Returns from Off-land Activities;192
8.1.1.2.2.4;5.2.2.4 Returns from Wildlife;194
8.1.1.2.2.5;5.2.2.5 Demographic Characteristics Across Household Clusters;196
8.1.1.2.2.6;5.2.2.6 Cluster Membership and Study Areas;198
8.1.1.3;5.3 Predicting Livelihood Strategies and Household Well-Being;199
8.1.1.3.1;5.3.1 Modelling Cluster Membership;199
8.1.1.3.2;5.3.2 Predictors of Economic Well-being in Amboseli;202
8.1.1.3.2.1;5.3.2.1 Predicting Gross Income;204
8.1.1.3.2.2;5.3.2.2 Predicting Livestock Holdings;204
8.1.1.4;5.4 System Trends;206
8.1.1.4.1;5.4.1 Livestock Intensification;206
8.1.1.4.2;5.4.2 Diversification Pathways Through Time;209
8.1.1.5;5.5 Maasai Livelihoods: Current and Future;212
8.1.1.6;References;216
9;Part III: Family Portraits - Longido;220
9.1;Chapter 6;228
9.1.1;Still “People of Cattle”? Livelihoods, Diversification and Community Conservation in Longido District;228
9.1.1.1;6.1 Introduction;228
9.1.1.1.1;6.1.1 Land Tenure Policies;230
9.1.1.1.2;6.1.2 Wildlife Trends and Conservation Policies;231
9.1.1.1.3;6.1.3 Land Use and Livelihoods;233
9.1.1.2;6.2 Study Sites, Methodology and Analysis;234
9.1.1.2.1;6.2.1 Study Sites;234
9.1.1.2.2;6.2.2 Study Schedule, Data Collection and Analysis;236
9.1.1.3;6.3 Longido Maasai Livelihoods;237
9.1.1.3.1;6.3.1 Pastoralism and Livestock Production;237
9.1.1.3.2;6.3.2 Agriculture;238
9.1.1.3.3;6.3.3 Off-Farm Income and Remittances;239
9.1.1.3.4;6.3.4 Income from Wildlife/Conservation-Related Sources;240
9.1.1.4;6.4 Categorizing Livelihoods Strategies in Longido;241
9.1.1.4.1;6.4.1 Household Demography and Livelihood Strategies;246
9.1.1.4.2;6.4.2 Qualifying Diversification;247
9.1.1.5;6.5 Determinants of Livelihood Strategies;248
9.1.1.6;6.6 Determinants of wealth;253
9.1.1.6.1;6.6.1 Note on Method of Analysis;253
9.1.1.6.2;6.6.2 Factors Influencing Income and Livestock wealth;254
9.1.1.7;6.7 Costs and Benefits of Wildlife in Longido Livelihoods;256
9.1.1.8;6.8 Discussion;262
9.1.1.9;References;266
10;Part IV: Family Portraits - Tarangire;268
10.1;Chapter 7;273
10.1.1;Cattle and Crops, Tourism and Tanzanite: Poverty, Land-Use Change and Conservation in Simanjiro District, Tanzania;273
10.1.1.1;7.1 Introduction;273
10.1.1.2;7.2 Setting and Research Approach;275
10.1.1.3;7.3 Livelihood Strategies on the Simanjiro Plains;279
10.1.1.3.1;7.3.1 Livestock Production and Pastoralism;279
10.1.1.3.2;7.3.2 Farming and Land-Use Change;284
10.1.1.3.2.1;7.3.2.1 Agricultural Expansion and Land Allocation;284
10.1.1.3.2.2;7.3.2.2 Agricultural Production and Household Economics;286
10.1.1.3.3;7.3.3 Off-Farm Income;288
10.1.1.3.4;7.3.4 The Relative Importance of Different Income Sources;290
10.1.1.3.5;7.3.5 Investment in Livelihoods;292
10.1.1.4;7.4 Community-Based Conservation in Simanjiro;293
10.1.1.4.1;7.4.1 Background to Wildlife Conservation in Tarangire and Simanjiro;293
10.1.1.4.2;7.4.2 Conflicts Past and Present;296
10.1.1.4.3;7.4.3 Benefiting from Wildlife – A Village-Level Analysis;297
10.1.1.4.4;7.4.4 Perceptions: Beyond Economics;300
10.1.1.5;7.5 Tanzanite and Land-Use Change in the Simanjiro Plains;301
10.1.1.5.1;7.5.1 Tanzanite and Tenure – A New Resource, Familiar Patterns;303
10.1.1.6;7.6 Conclusion;304
10.1.1.7;References;305
10.2;Chapter 8;309
10.2.1;Community-Based Conservation and Maasai Livelihoods in Tanzania;309
10.2.1.1;8.1 Introduction;309
10.2.1.1.1;8.1.1 Community Wildlife Management and Rural Development;310
10.2.1.2;8.2 Rural Communities and Wildlife Conservation in Tanzania: A Brief History;311
10.2.1.2.1;8.2.1 The Colonial Period: Nature, Governance and Economic Control;311
10.2.1.2.2;8.2.2 The Post-Independence Period: Ujamaa, Crisis and Re-appraisal;313
10.2.1.3;8.3 The case studies;317
10.2.1.3.1;8.3.1 The Ruaha: Farmer–Herder Relations, CWM, and Rangeland Exclusion;317
10.2.1.3.1.1;8.3.1.1 Background: Wildlife Conservation, Ujamaa and Farmer-Herder Land-use Change in the Ruaha;318
10.2.1.3.1.2;8.3.1.2 The Development of CWM in the Ruaha;321
10.2.1.3.1.3;8.3.1.3 Conclusion: Compressed Landscapes, Marginalization and a Lost Future;325
10.2.1.3.2;8.3.2 The Ilparakuyo in Morogoro District;326
10.2.1.3.3;8.3.3 Village-based CWM as an Alternative to WMAs in Loliondo;329
10.2.1.3.3.1;8.3.3.1 Joint Ventures: Tourism Revenue and Conservation;331
10.2.1.3.3.2;8.3.3.2 Hunting Interests, Land Reform, and Evidence of Property;333
10.2.1.3.3.3;8.3.3.3 WMAs: Whose Wildlife, Whose Land?;335
10.2.1.3.3.4;8.3.3.4 Conservation and Maasai Livelihoods in Loliondo;336
10.2.1.4;8.4 Wildlife Conservation and Maasai Livelihoods;337
10.2.1.5;8.5 Conclusion;339
10.2.1.6;References;340
10.3;Chapter 9;344
10.3.1;Policy and Practice in Kenya Rangelands: Impacts on Livelihoods and Wildlife;344
10.3.1.1;9.1 Introduction;344
10.3.1.2;9.2 The Policy Framework in Kenya;345
10.3.1.2.1;9.2.1 Land Tenure Policy;346
10.3.1.2.2;9.2.2 Agriculture and Livestock Policies;349
10.3.1.2.2.1;9.2.2.1 Impact of Agricultural and Livestock Policies on Pastoral Development Indices;351
10.3.1.2.3;9.2.3 Wildlife and Conservation Policy to Date;354
10.3.1.2.3.1;9.2.3.1 Wildlife Conservation Outcomes and New Policy Directions;356
10.3.1.3;9.3 Policies and Outcomes: Why the Gap?;359
10.3.1.3.1;9.3.1 Wildlife Revenue Sharing;359
10.3.1.3.2;9.3.2 Livestock Versus Agriculture: Simulation Models to Evaluate Land use Change in the Kenyan Rangelands;362
10.3.1.4;9.4 Policy/Practice Distortions: Powerful Players, ‘Participation’ and ‘Partnership’;366
10.3.1.5;9.5 Summary and Conclusion;368
10.3.1.6;References;372
10.4;Chapter 10;377
10.4.1;Staying Maasai? Pastoral Livelihoods, Diversification and the Role of Wildlife in Development;377
10.4.1.1;10.1 Introduction;377
10.4.1.1.1;10.1.1 Summary of Approach;378
10.4.1.2;10.2 Staying Maasai? Livestock, Cultivation and Non-farm work in Contemporary Rangeland Livelihoods;380
10.4.1.2.1;10.2.1 Livestock;386
10.4.1.2.2;10.2.2 Cultivation;388
10.4.1.2.3;10.2.3 Non-farm Activities;391
10.4.1.2.4;10.2.4 Diversification and Wealth;392
10.4.1.2.4.1;10.2.4.1 Factors Influencing Livelihood Wealth or Poverty Outcomes in Maasailand;392
10.4.1.2.4.2;10.2.4.2 Poverty, Development and Diversification in Maasai Rangelands;395
10.4.1.2.4.3;10.2.4.3 Poverty Datum Lines and Thresholds;396
10.4.1.2.4.4;10.2.4.4 Qualifying Diversification;397
10.4.1.3;10.3 Tourism and Wildlife in Maasailand;401
10.4.1.3.1;10.3.1 Livelihoods Studies in the Evaluation of Conservation Impacts;403
10.4.1.3.2;10.3.2 Power and Politics of Wildlife Tourism: Distribution of Wildlife Returns and Governance;406
10.4.1.3.3;10.3.3 Value of Maasai Pastoralist Production;407
10.4.1.4;10.4 So What? Lessons for Policy;408
10.4.1.5;References;411
11;Index;417