Niaounakis Biopolymers: Processing and Products

1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-323-27938-3
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 616 Seiten

Reihe: Plastics Design Library

Biopolymers and biodegradable plastics are finding new applications in various sectors, from packaging, to medical, automotive and many more. As synthetic plastics are increasingly replaced by their bioplastic equivalents, engineers are facing new challenges including processing, costs, environmental sustainability and - ultimately - developing successful products. Biopolymers: Processing and Products, the second book of a trilogy dedicated to biopolymers, gives a detailed insight into all aspects of processing, seamlessly linking the science of biopolymers to the latest trends in the development of new products. Processes covered in the book include blending, compounding, treatment, and shaping, as well as the formation of biocomposites. Biopolymer coatings and adhesives are also investigated. This book unique in its coverage contains information retrieved mainly from patents, which form the bulk of the book. The coverage of processing will help engineers and designers to improve output and efficiency of every stage of the product development process, and will form an indispensable tool in selecting the right biopolymer and processing technique for any given application, covering medical, automotive, food packaging and more. It will assist also engineers, material scientists and researchers to improve existing biopolymer processes and deliver better products at lower cost. - Multi-disciplinary approach and critical presentation of all available processing techniques and new products of biopolymers - Contains information not to be found in any other book - Self-contained chapters

European Patent Office, Rijswijk, Netherlands

Autoren/Hrsg.

Niaounakis, Michael

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Series Page;3
3;Biopolymers: Processing and Products;4
4;Copyright;5
5;Contents;6
6;Foreword;10
7;Abbreviations of Biopolymers;14
8;Chapter 1 - Introduction;16
8.1;1.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS;16
8.2;1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BIOPOLYMERS;17
8.3;1.3 TYPES AND CHEMISTRY OF BIOPOLYMERS;19
8.4;1.4 POLYESTERS;19
8.5;1.5 POLY(ETHER-ESTER)S (BIO-BASED);38
8.6;1.6 ALIPHATIC POLYCARBONATES;39
8.7;1.7 POLYAMIDES;40
8.8;1.8 POLY(ESTER AMIDES);44
8.9;1.9 POLY(ETHER AMIDE)S;45
8.10;1.10 POLYURETHANES (BIO-BASED PU);45
8.11;1.11 POLYSACCHARIDES;46
8.12;1.12 LIGNIN;50
8.13;1.13 VINYL POLYMERS;53
8.14;1.14 DIENE POLYMERS;54
8.15;1.15 OTHER BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS;54
8.16;1.16 SOURCES OF BIOPOLYMERS;57
8.17;REFERENCES;90
9;Chapter 2 - Properties;94
9.1;2.1 INTRINSIC PROPERTIES;94
9.2;2.2 PROCESSING PROPERTIES;102
9.3;2.3 PRODUCT PROPERTIES;104
9.4;REFERENCES;130
10;Chapter 3 - Blending;132
10.1;3.1 BLENDS IN GENERAL;132
10.2;3.2 BLENDING BIOPOLYMERS WITH OTHER BIOPOLYMERS;133
10.3;3.3 BLENDING BIOPOLYMERS WITH SYNTHETIC NONBIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS;148
10.4;3.4 COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS;165
10.5;PATENTS;167
10.6;REFERENCES;198
11;Chapter 4 - Emulsions/Dispersions/Solutions/Gels;202
11.1;4.1 MAKING EMULSIONS AND DISPERSIONS;202
11.2;4.2 MAKING SOLUTIONS;210
11.3;4.3 MAKING (HYDRO)GELS;212
11.4;REFERENCES;229
12;Chapter 5 - Compounding and Additives;230
12.1;5.1 GENERAL;230
12.2;5.2 COMPOUNDING BY SHEAR AND HEAT;230
12.3;5.3 COMPOUNDING IN LIQUID OR SOLUTION;233
12.4;5.4 MAKING MASTERBATCHES;234
12.5;5.5 ADDITIVES AND MODIFIERS;238
12.6;REFERENCES;277
13;Chapter 6 - Powdering;278
13.1;6.1 PELLETIZATION;278
13.2;6.2 PULVERIZATION;279
13.3;6.3 DISSOLUTION-DEPOSITION;280
13.4;6.4 EMULSION-PRECIPITATION;281
13.5;6.5 COAGULATING DISPERSIONS;283
13.6;6.6 SUPERCRITICAL FLUID TECHNOLOGY;283
13.7;REFERENCES;291
14;Chapter 7 - Chemical Treatment (in Bulk);292
14.1;7.1 INTRODUCTION OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS;292
14.2;7.2 CONTROLLED DEGRADATION;298
14.3;7.3 INCREASING THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT;299
14.4;7.4 RADIATION (IN BULK);299
14.5;7.5 INTERREACTING POLYMERS;300
14.6;PATENTS;305
14.7;REFERENCES;315
15;Chapter 8 - Surface Treatment;318
15.1;8.1 GENERAL;318
15.2;8.2 PHYSICAL TREATMENT;318
15.3;8.3 CHEMICAL TREATMENT;319
15.4;8.4 COATING;323
15.5;8.5 PRINTING;328
15.6;PATENTS;332
15.7;REFERENCES;341
16;Chapter 9 - Foaming and Foamed Products;342
16.1;9.1 BIOPOLYMER FOAMS;342
16.2;9.2 TYPES OF BIOPOLYMERS;342
16.3;9.3 FOAMING AGENTS;344
16.4;9.4 COMPOUNDING INGREDIENTS;347
16.5;9.5 EXPANDABLE PARTICLES;351
16.6;9.6 COMPOSITE FOAMS;355
16.7;9.7 CROSSLINKING;356
16.8;9.8 AFTER TREATMENT OF FOAMS;357
16.9;PATENTS;360
17;Chapter 10 - Manufacture of Films/Laminates;376
17.1;10.1 FILMS;376
17.2;10.2 LAMINATES;386
18;Chapter 11 - Manufacture of Fibers and Fabrics;402
18.1;11.1 FIBER FORMATION;402
18.2;11.2 NONWOVEN;406
18.3;11.3 WOVEN/KNITTED;411
18.4;11.4 NANOFIBERS;412
18.5;11.5 WEARING RESISTANCE OF FIBERS;413
18.6;11.6 ANTISTATIC FIBERS;414
18.7;PATENTS;416
19;Chapter 12 - Manufacture of Biocomposites;426
19.1;12.1 GENERAL;426
19.2;12.2 REINFORCING BIOPOLYMERS WITH LOOSE OR COHERENT FIBROUS MATERIAL;426
19.3;12.3 REINFORCING BIOPOLYMERS WITH FILLERS;432
19.4;12.4 MANUFACTURE OF PREPREGS;436
19.5;12.5 BONDING PREFORMED BIOPOLYMERS TO THE SAME OR OTHER SOLID MATERIAL;436
19.6;REFERENCES;445
20;Chapter 13 - Coating Compositions;446
20.1;13.1 GENERAL;446
20.2;13.2 THERMOPLASTIC COATING COMPOSITIONS;446
20.3;13.3 POWDER COATINGS;450
20.4;13.4 TEMPORARY OR STRIPPABLE COATINGS;450
20.5;PATENTS;454
21;Chapter 14 - Inks;462
21.1;14.1 INKS IN GENERAL;462
21.2;14.2 JET PRINTING INKS;462
21.3;14.3 FLEXOGRAPHIC INKS, GRAVURE INKS, AND SCREEN INKS;464
21.4;14.4 ELECTROPHOTOGRAPHIC TONERS;466
21.5;14.5 COLOR CHANGING INKS;467
21.6;14.6 WRITING INKS;467
21.7;PATENTS;469
22;Chapter 15 - Adhesive Compositions;474
22.1;15.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ADHESIVES;474
22.2;15.2 NONREACTIVE ADHESIVES;474
22.3;15.3 REACTIVE ADHESIVES;481
22.4;15.4 BIO-BASED ADHESIVES;482
22.5;REFERENCES;495
23;Chapter 16 - Recycling;496
23.1;16.1 REUSE;496
23.2;16.2 PHYSICAL RECYCLING;502
23.3;16.3 CHEMICAL RECYCLING;511
23.4;PATENTS;530
23.5;REFERENCES;544
24;Glossary;546
25;Index;558
26;Index of Companies;568
27;Index of Inventors;572
28;Index of Patents;586

Leseproben

Foreword

The present book forms the second part of a trilogy dedicated to biopolymers. The book “Biopolymers: Reuse, Recycling and Disposal” formed the first part, and the book “Applications and Trends”—to appear in spring 2015—will form the third part. All three books cover every aspect of biopolymers, from feedstocks for the production of biopolymers to the disposal and/or recycling.

In the present study the term “biopolymers” is interpreted as including both polymers derived from renewable resources (bio-based), which are either biodegradable or nonbiodegradable, and polymers derived from fossil fuel resources, which are biodegradable. Biopolymers can be produced by biological systems such as microorganisms, plants, or animals, or obtained by chemical synthesis.

Emphasis is given to patents, which despite their industrial and economical importance are still underrepresented in scientific literature. Although a substantial number of patents has been cited and critically commented, the book does not pretend to cover the whole range of available patents. Undoubtedly, important patents were left out, but taken into account the extent of the coverage, this was unavoidable. In any case, a genuine effort was made to cover the most represented patents in each technical field.

The patents were retrieved from the patent server “espacenet” (www.espacenet.com) of the European Patent Office (EPO). EPO’s worldwide collection of published patent applications contains not only patents from the major patent offices (EPO, WIPO, USA, JPO), but also patents from over 90 national offices. This server has certain advantages compared to other free patent servers, as it covers not only patents in English, but also patents in German and French. In addition, espacenet contains bibliographic data and abstracts of all Japanese, Korean, Chinese and Russian patents, as well as patents in several other languages, and provides machine translations of most of these patents. It is firmly believed that the appeal of the book will increase by the retrieval and analysis of patent information in so many languages.

The book consists of 16 chapters. The first 2 chapters provide basic information on biopolymers, while the remaining 14 chapters are focusing on processing and products. Few parts of the present book, and especially Chapter 1: Introduction, and Chapter 16: Recycling, are coming inevitably from the previous book, “Biopolymers: Disposal, Reuse and Recycling,” Elsevier, 2006, albeit in an extended and updated form.

Chapter 1, introduction, constitutes of three parts. The first part presents and compares the various terms used to describe biopolymers, namely “degradable,” “biodegradable,” “bio-based,” “compostable,” and “biopolymer,” which appear to have multiple and overlapping meanings. The second part gives an extensive introduction to most of the existing and newly developed biopolymers and provides updated lists of their commercial products and current applications. The third part investigates the possible sources of biopolymers, including first, second, and third generation feedstocks.

Chapter 2 presents the main properties of biopolymers and constitutes of three parts. The first part relates to intrinsic properties, which refer to the polymer itself. The second part relates to processing properties, which refer to the behavior of the polymer during forming. The third part relates to product properties, which refer to the properties of the polymer as an entity. Among the intrinsic properties are: density, transition temperatures and crystallinity, solubility, gas barrier properties, transparency, and electromagnetic properties. Among the product properties are: mechanical behavior, heat resistance, water resistance, antistatic properties, aesthetic properties, and environmental behavior of biopolymers. The chapter contains several comparative tables, tables of selected properties, and schemes of (bio)degradation mechanisms.

Chapter 3 relates to blending of biopolymers with other polymers, and constitutes mainly of two parts. The first part examines blends of biopolymers with other biopolymers. The second part examines blends of biopolymers with synthetic nonbiodegradable polymers, where the biopolymers are either in majority or minority. The chapter is accompanied by several tables that summarize a large number of blend formulations of biopolymers and their miscibilities with other (bio)polymers.

Chapter 4 relates to emulsions, dispersions, solutions, and gels of biopolymers made by other methods than by emulsion, suspension, or solution polymerization. The various techniques described in the prior art for the preparation of polymer emulsions, dispersions and lattices are divided roughly into three main groups: solvent-based, thermomechanical, and solvent-free destructuring methods. The solvent-based methods in turn include the emulsification–evaporation, (nano)precipitation, salting, and emulsification-diffusion techniques.

Chapter 5 investigates the various techniques employed for the compounding of biopolymers with additives categorized in two main groups: (1) compounding by shear and heat, and (2) compounding in liquid or solution. In both groups the additives are added to the biopolymer as powders, dispersions, solutions or masterbatches. A separate section reviews the various types of additives and modifiers which are used to protect the biopolymers during processing and/or service life, including also some other additives which can accelerate the degradation of the biopolymer after disposal. The chapter is accompanied by several tables summarizing representative compounding techniques and formulations of biopolymers, as well as lists of selected additives in biopolymer systems.

Chapter 6 relates to methods of preparing particles from preformed biopolymers and constitutes of six parts: (1) pelletization (e.g., by melt kneading), (2) pulverization (e.g., by mechanical crushing, grinding, or shredding), (3) dissolution–deposition, (4) emulsion-precipitation, (5) coagulation and (6) supercritical fluid technology.

Chapter 7 relates to chemical treatment or chemical modification of biopolymers, and constitutes of four parts. The first part examines the various techniques of introducing functional groups in a polymer chain and includes the cases of: (1) incorporation of functional monomers during the polymerization process; (2) modification of the terminal groups; and (3) grafting/block copolymerization. The second part examines the techniques for modifying the molecular weight of a biopolymer by either controlled degradation or increase of the molecular weight through coupling. The third part relates to radiation treatment of biopolymers in the bulk, which is distinguished from the radiation on the surface of biopolymers of Chapter 8. The fourth part relates to the various techniques of crosslinking including the special case of interpenetrating network (IPN).

Chapter 8 examines the various techniques of altering the surface nature of biopolymers categorized into three groups: (1) physical treatment, (2) chemical treatment, and (3) coating or printing, which can include a pretreatment step by any of the techniques of (1) and (2). The physical methods (1) include (a) treatment with solvents/swelling agents, (b) roughening (e.g., mechanical abrasion) and (c) heat treatment (e.g., annealing). The chemical methods (2) used to modify the surface properties of biopolymers are divided in the following subgroups: (a) hydrolysis/aminolysis/solvolysis; (b) incorporation of functional groups by chemical means, flame treatment, radiation, plasma, corona treatment, or any method that can introduce functional groups to the surface of the biopolymer; and (c) grafting of polymerizable monomers or preformed polymers. Coating or printing (3) includes single coating and multiple coatings, coating with inorganic or low molecular weight organic compounds, and coating with polymer(s).

Chapter 9 relates to foams and constitutes of five parts. The first part examines foams made of various types of biopolymers, namely polyesters and starch. The second part examines physical and chemical foaming agents, as well as compounding ingredients. The third part examines expandable particles. The fourth part examines composite foams and crosslinking; and the fifth part examines the after treatment of foams including heat treatment and coating.

Chapter 10 relates to films and constitutes of two parts. The first part examines free standing films made of various types of biopolymers. Two special types of films are the shrinkable films and the porous films. The second part examines laminates that are multilayered structures composed at least in part of biopolymers.

Chapter 11 relates to fibers made of biopolymers and constitutes of three parts. The first part examines fibers made of various types of biopolymers. The second part examines fiber structures, namely nonwoven webs including carpets and woven/knitted fabrics. The third part examines selected properties of fibers made of biopolymers including wearing resistance and antistatic properties. A separate section is dedicated to nanofibers.

Chapter 12 relates to biocomposites and constitutes of two parts. The first part examines the various types of biocomposites including biopolymers reinforced with inorganic or organic fillers in the form of loose or coherent particles or fibers. A special category of biocomposites is the nanobiocomposites that are biopolymers reinforced with nanofillers and/or nanofibers. Another category is the prepregs that are...