E-Book, Englisch, 1074 Seiten
Reihe: Behavioral Science
Steptoe / Freedland Handbook of Behavioral Medicine
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-0-387-09488-5
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark
Methods and Applications
E-Book, Englisch, 1074 Seiten
Reihe: Behavioral Science
ISBN: 978-0-387-09488-5
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark
Autoren/Hrsg.
Weitere Infos & Material
1;Preface;5
2;Contents;7
3;Contributors;13
4;Part I Health Behaviors: Processes and Measures;25
4.1;1 Social and Environmental Determinants of HealthBehaviors;26
4.1.1;1 Introduction;26
4.1.2;2 Theoretical Frameworks;28
4.1.3;3 Social and Environmental Determinants of Physical Activity;28
4.1.3.1;3.1 Social Determinants of Physical Activity;29
4.1.3.1.1;3.1.1 Socioeconomic Position;29
4.1.3.1.2;3.1.2 Social Support;29
4.1.3.1.3;3.1.3 Personal Safety and Crime;30
4.1.3.1.4;3.1.4 Social Capital;30
4.1.3.2;3.2 Environmental Determinants of Physical Activity;31
4.1.3.2.1;3.2.1 Availability and Accessibility;31
4.1.3.2.2;3.2.2 Aesthetics;31
4.1.3.2.3;3.2.3 Neighborhood Infrastructure;32
4.1.3.2.4;3.2.4 Road Safety;32
4.1.4;4 Social and Environmental Determinants of Eating Behaviors;32
4.1.4.1;4.1 Social Determinants of Healthy Eating Behaviors;33
4.1.4.1.1;4.1.1 Socioeconomic Position;33
4.1.4.1.2;4.1.2 Social Support;33
4.1.4.1.3;4.1.3 Family and Household Composition;33
4.1.4.2;4.2 Environmental Determinants of Healthy Eating Behaviors;34
4.1.4.2.1;4.2.1 Availability and Access;34
4.1.4.2.2;4.2.2 Affordability;35
4.1.5;5 Conclusions;36
4.1.6;References;37
4.2;2 Cognitive Determinants of Health Behavior;41
4.2.1;1 Introduction;41
4.2.2;2 Social Cognition Models;41
4.2.2.1;2.1 The Health Belief Model;42
4.2.2.2;2.2 Protection Motivation Theory;43
4.2.2.3;2.3 Theory of Planned Behavior;44
4.2.2.4;2.4 Social Cognitive Theory;45
4.2.2.5;2.5 Stage Models of Health Behavior;46
4.2.3;3 Integration of Social Cognition Models;47
4.2.4;4 Current Directions;47
4.2.4.1;4.1 Intention Stability;48
4.2.4.2;4.2 Affective Influences;49
4.2.4.3;4.3 Implementation Intentions;49
4.2.5;5 Conclusions;50
4.2.6;References;50
4.3;3 Assessment of Physical Activity in Research and Clinical Practice;53
4.3.1;1 Introduction;53
4.3.2;2 Physical Activity and Health Outcomes;53
4.3.2.1;2.1 All-Cause and CHD-Related Mortality;53
4.3.2.2;2.2 Incidence of Chronic Diseases;55
4.3.2.2.1;2.2.1 Coronary Heart Disease;55
4.3.2.2.2;2.2.2 Diabetes Mellitus;55
4.3.2.2.3;2.2.3 Cancer;55
4.3.2.2.4;2.2.4 Osteoporosis;56
4.3.2.2.5;2.2.5 Clinical Depression;56
4.3.3;3 Defining Physical Activity;56
4.3.4;4 Dimensions of Assessment;57
4.3.5;5 Laboratory Measures;57
4.3.5.1;5.1 Exercise Treadmill Testing;57
4.3.5.2;5.2 The 6-Minute Walk Test;58
4.3.5.3;5.3 The Step Test;59
4.3.6;6 Field Measures;59
4.3.6.1;6.1 Pedometers;59
4.3.6.2;6.2 Accelerometers;60
4.3.6.3;6.3 Questionnaires and Activity Rating Scales;60
4.3.6.3.1;6.3.1 Harvard Alumni Activity Survey;61
4.3.6.3.2;6.3.2 Minnesota Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire;63
4.3.6.3.3;6.3.3 Seven-Day Physical Activity Recall;63
4.3.6.3.4;6.3.4 Stages of Exercise Change Questionnaire;63
4.3.6.3.5;6.3.5 Community Healthy Activities Model Program for Seniors Activities Questionnaire;64
4.3.6.3.6;6.3.6 Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire;64
4.3.6.3.7;6.3.7 International Physical Activity Questionnaire;64
4.3.7;7 Physiological Measures;65
4.3.7.1;7.1 Oxygen Uptake;65
4.3.7.2;7.2 Heart Rate Monitoring;65
4.3.8;8 Future Directions;65
4.3.8.1;8.1 Combination Devices;65
4.3.8.2;8.2 New Technologies;66
4.3.9;9 Conclusions;66
4.3.10;References;66
4.4;4 Dietary Assessment in Behavioral Medicine;71
4.4.1;1 Overview of Dietary Assessment in Behavioral Medicine;71
4.4.2;2 Standard Dietary Assessment Tools for Use in Behavioral Medicine;72
4.4.2.1;2.1 Food Records and Diaries;72
4.4.2.2;2.2 Dietary Recalls;73
4.4.2.3;2.3 Food Frequency Questionnaires;74
4.4.2.4;2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Standard Dietary Assessment Instruments;75
4.4.3;3 Non-traditional Dietary Assessment Instruments Used in Behavioral Medicine;76
4.4.3.1;3.1 Household Food Inventories;76
4.4.3.2;3.2 Targeted Instruments;76
4.4.3.3;3.3 Eating Behavior Instruments;77
4.4.4;4 Summary and Conclusions;77
4.4.5;References;77
4.5;5 Assessment of Sexual Behavior;81
4.5.1;1 Assessment of Sexual Behavior;81
4.5.2;2 Reasons for Measuring Sexual Behavior;82
4.5.2.1;2.1 General Health Benefits;82
4.5.2.2;2.2 Sexual Health Outcomes;82
4.5.2.2.1;2.2.1 Positive Sexual Health Outcomes;82
4.5.2.2.2;2.2.2 Negative Sexual Health Outcomes;83
4.5.3;3 Assessment of Sexual Behavior: How to Gather the Data;83
4.5.3.1;3.1 Modes of Assessment;83
4.5.3.1.1;3.1.1 Interviews;83
4.5.3.1.2;3.1.2 Self-Administered Questionnaires;84
4.5.3.1.3;3.1.3 Internet Surveys;85
4.5.3.1.4;3.1.4 Self-Monitoring and Diary Methods;85
4.5.3.1.5;3.1.5 Virtual Reality;86
4.5.4;4 Measures of Sexual Behavior: What to Gather;86
4.5.4.1;4.1 Question Types;86
4.5.4.1.1;4.1.1 Frequency of Sexual Behavior;86
4.5.4.1.2;4.1.2 Consistency of Sexual Behavior;87
4.5.4.1.3;4.1.3 Dichotomies;87
4.5.4.1.4;4.1.4 Count Measures of Sexual Behavior;87
4.5.4.1.5;4.1.5 Composite Measures of Sexual Behavior;88
4.5.4.2;4.2 Standardized (Published) Measures;88
4.5.5;5 Challenges to Sexual Assessment;88
4.5.5.1;5.1 Cognition and Memory Challenges;89
4.5.5.1.1;5.1.1 Length of Recall Period;89
4.5.5.1.2;5.1.2 Partner and Sexual Act Specificity;90
4.5.5.2;5.2 Literacy Skills;90
4.5.5.3;5.3 Social Desirability and Presentation Concerns;91
4.5.5.4;5.4 Cultural, Developmental, Sexual Orientation and Gender Matching;91
4.5.5.5;5.5 Individual Versus Dyadic Assessments;91
4.5.6;6 Conclusions;91
4.5.7;References;92
4.6;6 By Force of Habit;95
4.6.1;1 By Force of Habit;95
4.6.2;2 The Three Pillars of Habit;95
4.6.2.1;2.1 Frequency;96
4.6.2.2;2.2 Automaticity;96
4.6.2.3;2.3 Context Cuing;96
4.6.3;3 Varieties of Habit;97
4.6.3.1;3.1 The Location of a Habit;97
4.6.3.2;3.2 General Versus Specific Habits;98
4.6.3.3;3.3 Mental Habits;98
4.6.4;4 Breaking and Creating Habit;98
4.6.4.1;4.1 Breaking Habit;99
4.6.4.2;4.2 Creating Habit;99
4.6.4.3;4.3 Habit Discontinuities;99
4.6.5;5 The Measurement of Habit;100
4.6.5.1;5.1 Frequency of Past Behavior;100
4.6.5.2;5.2 Past Behavioral Frequency and Habit Combined;100
4.6.5.3;5.3 Response Frequency Measure;100
4.6.5.4;5.4 Habit as a Reason for Behavior;100
4.6.5.5;5.5 A Context-Focused Habit Measure;101
4.6.5.6;5.6 Self-Report Habit Index;101
4.6.5.7;5.7 Conclusions;102
4.6.6;6 General Conclusions;102
4.6.7;References;102
4.7;7 Adherence to Medical Advice: Processesand Measurement;105
4.7.1;1 Introduction;105
4.7.2;2 Classification of Adherence;106
4.7.2.1;2.1 Acceptance of the Regimen;106
4.7.2.2;2.2 Adoption of the Regimen;106
4.7.2.3;2.3 Initiation of the Regimen;107
4.7.2.4;2.4 Treatment Continuation;107
4.7.3;3 Defining Adherence;109
4.7.4;4 Measurement of Adherence;109
4.7.4.1;4.1 Numeric Assessment of Adherence;109
4.7.4.1.1;4.1.1 Electronic Monitoring;110
4.7.4.1.2;4.1.2 Pill Counts;111
4.7.4.1.3;4.1.3 Pharmacy Refills;111
4.7.4.1.4;4.1.4 Daily Diaries;111
4.7.4.1.5;4.1.5 Daily Recall;112
4.7.5;5 Global Assessment of Adherence;112
4.7.6;6 Issues in Analysis of Adherence Data;113
4.7.7;7 Implications for Understanding Adherence;114
4.7.8;8 Summary and Recommendations;115
4.7.9;References;115
5;Part II Psychological Processes and Measures;118
5.1;8 Ecological Validity for Patient Reported Outcomes;119
5.1.1;1 Ecological Validity and Self-Reports;120
5.1.2;2 Momentary, Retrospective, and Global Self-Report;120
5.1.3;3 Does Ecological Validity Matter for Self-Report?;121
5.1.3.1;3.1 Variability over Time and Situation;121
5.1.3.2;3.2 Accuracy of Recall and Summary Processes;121
5.1.3.3;3.3 Implications for Global Reports;123
5.1.3.4;3.4 Implications for Retrospective Reports;123
5.1.3.5;3.5 Implications for Momentary Reports;123
5.1.4;4 Rationale for Taking Self-Report into Everyday Life;124
5.1.5;5 Conducting EMA Studies;126
5.1.5.1;5.1 Implementation of EMA and Application of Technology;127
5.1.5.2;5.2 Concerns About EMA;129
5.1.6;6 Conclusion;129
5.1.7;References;130
5.2;9 Item Response Theory and Its Application to Measurement in Behavioral Medicine;133
5.2.1;1 Introduction;133
5.2.2;2 Item Response Theory Versus Classical Test Theory;133
5.2.2.1;2.1 Limitations of Classical Test Theory;133
5.2.2.2;2.2 Item Response Theory as Ideal Model;134
5.2.3;3 IRT Models;135
5.2.3.1;3.1 Binary IRT Models;135
5.2.3.2;3.2 Polytomous IRT Models;136
5.2.3.3;3.3 Evaluating Item Quality;137
5.2.4;4 Applying IRT to Questionnaires in Behavioral Medicine;138
5.2.4.1;4.1 Questionnaire and Analysis with Polytomous IRT;138
5.2.4.2;4.2 Descriptive Statistics and Interpretation of IRT Results;138
5.2.5;5 Summary;143
5.2.6;References;143
5.3;10 Applications of Neurocognitive Assessment in Behavioral Medicine;144
5.3.1;1 Introduction;144
5.3.2;2 Neurocognition and Its Assessment;144
5.3.2.1;2.1 Orientation;145
5.3.2.2;2.2 Perception;146
5.3.2.3;2.3 Attention and Concentration;146
5.3.2.4;2.4 Executive Functions;146
5.3.2.5;2.5 Reasoning;146
5.3.2.6;2.6 Learning and Memory;147
5.3.2.7;2.7 Visuospatial and Visuoconstructional Abilities;147
5.3.2.8;2.8 Psychomotor Function;147
5.3.2.9;2.9 Verbal and Language Function;148
5.3.2.10;2.10 General Assessment Issues;148
5.3.3;3 Chronic Diseases, Risk Factors, and Neurocognition;148
5.3.3.1;3.1 Risk Factors and Neurocognition;149
5.3.3.2;3.2 Chronic Diseases and Neurocognition;150
5.3.3.3;3.3 Summary;150
5.3.4;4 Applications of Neuropsychology in Behavioral Medicine;151
5.3.4.1;4.1 Medical Decision Making;151
5.3.4.2;4.2 Quality of Life;152
5.3.5;5 Summary and Conclusions;152
5.3.6;References;152
5.4;11 Lay Representations of Illness and Treatment: A Framework for Action;156
5.4.1;1 What Are Lay Representations?;156
5.4.1.1;1.1 The Domains of Common-Sense Representations;156
5.4.1.1.1;1.1.1 Common-Sense Representations as Central Components in Feedback and Feedforward Control Systems;156
5.4.1.1.2;1.1.2 Representations Are Multi-level;157
5.4.1.2;1.2 Prototypes: Creating Representations of Illness and Targets for Management;158
5.4.1.2.1;1.2.1 The Formation of Prototypes and the Activation of Representations;158
5.4.1.2.2;1.2.2 Prototype Checking Is a Social Process;159
5.4.1.3;1.3 Representations Create a Context for Management;159
5.4.1.3.1;1.3.1 Relating Treatment and Action Plans to Illness Representations;159
5.4.1.3.2;1.3.2 The ''Executive Self'' and Strategies for Management;160
5.4.2;2 The Empirical Challenges;160
5.4.2.1;2.1 Contextual Factors Critical for the Implementation of the CSM;160
5.4.2.1.1;2.1.1 Are Participants Well or Ill?;161
5.4.2.1.2;2.1.2 Multiple Routes to Goal;161
5.4.2.1.3;2.1.3 Disease and Procedures for Control;162
5.4.2.1.4;2.1.4 Co-morbidities;162
5.4.2.1.5;2.1.5 Defining Goals by Action or by Target;162
5.4.2.1.6;2.1.6 Gender and Age;163
5.4.3;3 Methods for Implementation of the CSM;163
5.4.3.1;3.1 Description and Prediction in Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies;163
5.4.3.1.1;3.1.1 Illness Representations;163
5.4.3.1.2;3.1.2 Prototype Checks;164
5.4.3.1.3;3.1.3 Prototype Checks Connect Representations to Context;164
5.4.3.1.4;3.1.4 Treatment Representations;165
5.4.4;4 The CSM: A Conceptual Tool for Generating Interventions;166
5.4.4.1;4.1 Many Paths to Outcomes: Focusing Clinical Experiments and Trials;166
5.4.4.1.1;4.1.1 ''Needs'' Assessment;166
5.4.4.1.2;4.1.2 Participant Selection;167
5.4.4.1.3;4.1.3 Identifying Moderators and Mediators;167
5.4.4.1.4;4.1.4 Identifying Gaps and/or Targets for Change;167
5.4.4.2;4.2 Implementing Interventions;167
5.4.4.2.1;4.2.1 Implementing Illness Representations;168
5.4.4.2.2;4.2.2 Implementing Treatment Representations;168
5.4.4.2.3;4.2.3 Implementing Action Plans;169
5.4.4.3;4.3 Practitioner Participant Relationships: Executive Function and Expert Performance;169
5.4.4.3.1;4.3.1 Executive Function;170
5.4.5;References;171
5.5;12 Conceptualization, Measurement, and Analysis of Negative Affective Risk Factors;174
5.5.1;1 Overview of Recent Research;175
5.5.2;2 Conceptual Foundations;176
5.5.2.1;2.1 Essential Distinctions;176
5.5.2.1.1;2.1.1 Distinctions Among Negative Affects;176
5.5.2.1.2;2.1.2 Distinctions Among Types of Affective Phenomena;176
5.5.2.2;2.2 Empirical Challenges to Conceptual Distinctions;177
5.5.2.2.1;2.2.1 Specific Symptoms Scales Are Often Indistinguishable;177
5.5.2.2.2;2.2.2 Symptoms of Emotional Distress Overlap with Personality Traits;178
5.5.2.2.3;2.2.3 Emotional Disorders and Personality Traits Overlap;178
5.5.2.2.4;2.2.4 Diagnosed Emotional Disorders Are Not Discrete Categories;178
5.5.2.3;2.3 Implications;179
5.5.3;3 Measurement;180
5.5.3.1;3.1 Models of the Domain;180
5.5.3.2;3.2 Evaluating Measures;180
5.5.3.3;3.3 Considering Temporal Factors in the Measurement Strategy;181
5.5.3.4;3.4 Methods of Measurement;181
5.5.4;4 Analysis;181
5.5.4.1;4.1 Approaches to Confounding and Statistical Control;182
5.5.4.2;4.2 Recommendations;183
5.5.5;5 Conclusions and Implications;184
5.5.6;References;184
5.6;13 Hostility and Health;188
5.6.1;1 Components and Definitions;188
5.6.2;2 Origins of Hostile Predispositions;189
5.6.2.1;2.1 Developmental Influences;189
5.6.2.2;2.2 Effects of Adult Adversity;190
5.6.2.3;2.3 Genetic and Physiological Influences;190
5.6.2.4;2.4 Social Environment;192
5.6.3;3 Hostility and Health Outcomes;192
5.6.3.1;3.1 Coronary Disease Development;192
5.6.3.2;3.2 Prognosis in Those with Established Coronary Disease;193
5.6.3.3;3.3 Total Mortality and Other Diseases;193
5.6.3.4;3.4 Demographic Factors, Hostility, and Health Risks;194
5.6.4;4 Mechanisms;194
5.6.4.1;4.1 Social Stressors;194
5.6.5;5 Physiological Links Between Social Stress and Disease Processes;195
5.6.6;6 Health Behaviors;196
5.6.7;7 Interventions;196
5.6.8;References;198
5.7;14 Positive Well-Being and Health;203
5.7.1;1 Introduction;203
5.7.1.1;1.1 The Nature of Positive Well-Being;203
5.7.1.2;1.2 The Determinants of Positive Well-Being;204
5.7.2;2 Positive Well-Being and Health-Protective Characteristics;204
5.7.3;3 Positive Well-Being and Physical Health;205
5.7.4;4 Pathways Linking Positive Well-Being with Health;207
5.7.5;5 Psychological Well-Being and Health Behaviors;208
5.7.6;6 Biological Processes Linking Positive Well-Being and Health;208
5.7.6.1;6.1 Experimental Studies of Biology and Well-Being;209
5.7.6.2;6.2 Naturalistic Physiological Monitoring Studies;210
5.7.7;7 Interventions and Implications for Health;211
5.7.8;8 Conclusions;211
5.7.9;References;211
5.8;15 Coping and Health;214
5.8.1;1 Stress;214
5.8.1.1;1.1 Appraisals and Psychological Stress;214
5.8.1.1.1;1.1.1 Physiological Responses;215
5.8.2;2 Coping;216
5.8.2.1;2.1 Emotion-Focused and Problem-Focused Coping;216
5.8.2.2;2.2 Approach and Avoidance Coping;217
5.8.2.3;2.3 Positive, Meaning-Focused, and Spiritual Coping;217
5.8.2.4;2.4 Conclusions and Methodological Issues;218
5.8.3;3 Stress, Coping, and Health;218
5.8.3.1;3.1 What Is Health?;218
5.8.3.2;3.2 Coping and Health: Behavioral Pathways;219
5.8.3.3;3.3 Psychophysiological Pathways;219
5.8.3.4;3.4 Cautions and Qualifications;221
5.8.4;4 Coping Interventions for Disease Populations;221
5.8.5;References;222
6;Part III Social and Interpersonal Processes;226
6.1;16 Experimental Approaches to Social Interaction for the Behavioral Medicine Toolbox;227
6.1.1;1 Thioamine Acetylase Paradigm for Studying Illness Cognition;228
6.1.2;2 Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) Paradigm;230
6.1.3;3 Mental Harassment in the Context of Hostility and Cardiovascular Risk;232
6.1.4;4 Social Support in the Context of Behavioral Stress;233
6.1.5;5 Experimental Research on Advanced Directives;235
6.1.6;6 Conclusions;236
6.1.7;References;236
6.2;17 Social Support and Physical Health: Links and Mechanisms;240
6.2.1;1 Social Support and Health;240
6.2.2;2 Social Support: Definitions and Measurement;240
6.2.3;3 Social Support: Links to Physical Health Outcomes;241
6.2.3.1;3.1 Direct Versus Buffering Effects of Social Support on Health;243
6.2.4;4 Social Support and Health: Pathways;243
6.2.4.1;4.1 Psychological Pathways;243
6.2.4.2;4.2 Behavioral Pathways;244
6.2.4.3;4.3 Biological Pathways;244
6.2.5;5 Modifying Factors;246
6.2.6;6 Intervention Research;246
6.2.7;7 Future Directions;247
6.2.8;References;248
6.3;18 Social Networks and Health;252
6.3.1;1 Definitions and Measurement;252
6.3.2;2 Mechanisms Linking Social Networks to Health Outcomes;253
6.3.3;3 The Empirical Evidence Based Linking Social Networks to Health;254
6.3.3.1;3.1 All-Cause Mortality;255
6.3.3.2;3.2 Cardiovascular Disease;261
6.3.3.3;3.3 Cancer;261
6.3.3.4;3.4 Cognitive Decline;266
6.3.4;4 Future Directions;266
6.3.5;5 Conclusion;273
6.3.6;References;273
6.4;19 Social Norms and Health Behavior;277
6.4.1;1 Defining Norms;277
6.4.1.1;1.1 Differentiating Between Classes of Norms;277
6.4.2;2 Relationships of Norms to Health Behaviors;278
6.4.3;3 Social Norms Theory;279
6.4.3.1;3.1 The Extent of Misperceptions;279
6.4.3.2;3.2 Sources of Normative Misperceptions;280
6.4.3.3;3.3 Consequences of Misperceptions for Behaviors;280
6.4.3.4;3.4 Applications of Social Norms Theory to Behavior Change;281
6.4.3.5;3.5 Unsuccessful Social Norms Interventions: Problems and Solutions;282
6.4.4;4 Additional Applications of Norms to Behavior Change;283
6.4.5;5 Media Influence on Health Behaviors;284
6.4.6;6 Conclusion;285
6.4.7;References;285
6.5;20 Social Marketing: A Tale of Beer, Marriage, and Public Health;289
6.5.1;1 Introduction: It Is About People;289
6.5.2;2 Eight Ways of Putting People First;293
6.5.2.1;2.1 Clear Behavioral Objectives;293
6.5.2.2;2.2 Navigational Research;294
6.5.2.3;2.3 Building on Theory;294
6.5.2.4;2.4 Creating Attractive Motivational Exchanges with the Target Group;295
6.5.2.5;2.5 Recognizing that One Size Does Not Always Fit All;295
6.5.2.6;2.6 Thinking Beyond Communications;296
6.5.2.7;2.7 Thinking Beyond the Individual;298
6.5.2.8;2.8 Paying Careful Attention to the Competition;299
6.5.3;3 The Vital Role of Strategic Planning;299
6.5.4;4 Final Thoughts;300
6.5.5;References;301
7;Part IV Epidemiological and Population Perspectives;302
7.1;21 Assessment of Psychosocial Factors in Population Studies;303
7.1.1;1 Overview;303
7.1.2;2 Historical Perspective on Psychosocial Factors in Population Health;303
7.1.3;3 Rationale for Assessment of Psychosocial Constructs;305
7.1.4;4 Methods of Assessing Psychosocial Factors;309
7.1.4.1;4.1 Personality Characteristics;310
7.1.4.2;4.2 Emotional States;311
7.1.4.3;4.3 Chronic Stress and Stressors;312
7.1.4.4;4.4 Social Relationships;312
7.1.5;5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Self-Report Psychosocial Assessments;312
7.1.6;6 Future Directions;313
7.1.6.1;6.1 Multiple Psychological and Social Influences on Population Health;313
7.1.6.2;6.2 Factors Unique to Immigrant Groups and Minority Populations;314
7.1.6.3;6.3 Cultural Framework of Assessment Tools;314
7.1.6.4;6.4 Measurement and Modeling Issues;314
7.1.6.5;6.5 Pathways from Psychosocial Factors to Health and Illness;315
7.1.7;7 Summary;315
7.1.8;References;315
7.2;22 Socio-economic Position and Health;319
7.2.1;1 Introduction;319
7.2.2;2 Social Stratification and Social Class;319
7.2.2.1;2.1 Measures of Socio-economic Position;320
7.2.2.2;2.2 Education;320
7.2.2.3;2.3 Income, Wealth and Consumption;321
7.2.2.4;2.4 Occupational Class;321
7.2.2.5;2.5 Adjusting for Socio-economic Position;323
7.2.2.6;2.6 Relative or Absolute Differences;323
7.2.3;3 Explanations for the Association Between Socio-economic Position and Health;324
7.2.3.1;3.1 Health-Selection Explanations;325
7.2.3.2;3.2 Cultural/Behavioural Explanations;325
7.2.3.3;3.3 Materialist Explanations;326
7.2.3.4;3.4 Psychosocial Factors;326
7.2.3.5;3.5 Neo-material Explanations;327
7.2.3.6;3.6 Life Course Factors;328
7.2.3.7;3.7 Ecological Factors;328
7.2.4;4 Policy Implications;328
7.2.4.1;4.1 Health Gaps or Gradients;328
7.2.4.2;4.2 Social Mobility;329
7.2.4.3;4.3 The Role of Health Services and Inter-sectoral Government Action;330
7.2.5;5 Conclusion;330
7.2.6;References;331
7.3;23 Race, Ethnicity, and Health in a Global Context;333
7.3.1;1 Introduction;333
7.3.2;2 Definitions and Uses of Race and Ethnicity;334
7.3.3;3 The Significance of Race and Ethnicity for Health;338
7.3.4;4 Race/Ethnic Heterogeneity in Health Status;340
7.3.5;5 Mechanisms Through Which Race and Ethnicity May Affect Health;340
7.3.5.1;5.1 Socioeconomic status;340
7.3.5.2;5.2 Discrimination, Racism, and Stress;341
7.3.5.3;5.3 Medical Care;343
7.3.5.4;5.4 Immigration and Resources for Health;344
7.3.6;6 Future Research Directions;346
7.3.7;References;348
7.4;24 Neighborhood Factors in Health;352
7.4.1;1 Introduction;352
7.4.2;2 Brief Summary of Past Work on Neighborhoods and Behavioral Outcomes;353
7.4.2.1;2.1 Physical Activity;353
7.4.2.2;2.2 Diet;354
7.4.2.3;2.3 Body Mass Index and Obesity;354
7.4.2.4;2.4 Summary;355
7.4.3;3 Theoretical and Methodological Considerations;355
7.4.3.1;3.1 Conceptualization and Measurement of Neighborhoods;355
7.4.3.1.1;3.1.1 Spatial Scale;356
7.4.3.2;3.2 Measuring Neighborhood Exposures;358
7.4.3.2.1;3.2.1 From Psychometrics to Ecometrics;360
7.4.3.3;3.3 Improving Study Design and Causal Inference;360
7.4.3.4;3.4 Causal Diagrams;361
7.4.3.4.1;3.4.1 Randomization;361
7.4.3.5;3.5 Accounting for Time and Life-Course Effects;361
7.4.4;4 Conclusion;362
7.4.5;References;362
7.5;25 Health Literacy: A Brief Introduction;366
7.5.1;1 Introduction;366
7.5.2;2 Definition and Measurement;366
7.5.3;3 Epidemiology of Limited Health Literacy;367
7.5.3.1;3.1 Extent and Associations;368
7.5.3.1.1;3.1.1 Health Knowledge;368
7.5.3.1.2;3.1.2 Health Behavior;368
7.5.3.1.3;3.1.3 Health Status;369
7.5.3.2;3.2 Causal Pathways;369
7.5.4;4 Health Literacy Interventions;370
7.5.4.1;4.1 Enhancing Print Materials;370
7.5.4.1.1;4.1.1 Utilizing Visual Aids;371
7.5.4.2;4.2 Improving Oral Communication Skills;371
7.5.4.3;4.3 Simplifying Health Systems;372
7.5.4.4;4.4 Long-Term Strategies;372
7.5.4.5;4.5 To Screen or Not to Screen;373
7.5.5;5 Conclusion;373
7.5.6;References;373
7.6;26 Screening and Early Detection of Cancer: A Population Perspective;377
7.6.1;1 The Public Health Context of Screening;377
7.6.2;2 Screening and Cancer Control;377
7.6.3;3 Characteristics of Good Screening Tools;378
7.6.4;4 Provision of Cancer Screening Services;379
7.6.5;5 Optimizing Screening Uptake;380
7.6.6;6 Predictors of Uptake;381
7.6.6.1;6.1 Demographic Factors;381
7.6.6.1.1;6.1.1 Sex;381
7.6.6.1.2;6.1.2 Age;381
7.6.6.1.3;6.1.3 Marital Status;382
7.6.6.1.4;6.1.4 Socio-economic Status;382
7.6.6.1.5;6.1.5 Ethnicity;382
7.6.6.2;6.2 Psychosocial Predictors;383
7.6.6.2.1;6.2.1 Cognitive Factors;383
7.6.6.2.2;6.2.2 Emotional Factors;383
7.6.6.3;6.3 Practical and Service-Level Factors;383
7.6.7;7 Intention Versus Action;384
7.6.8;8 Interventions to Promote Uptake;384
7.6.9;9 Psychological Impact;385
7.6.9.1;9.1 Overall Impact of Screening Programs;385
7.6.9.2;9.2 Impact of a Normal Screening Result;385
7.6.9.3;9.3 Impact of Abnormal Results;385
7.6.9.4;9.4 Interventions to Reduce Negative Psychological Consequences of Screening;386
7.6.10;10 Issues for Future Research;386
7.6.10.1;10.1 Tackling Inequalities;386
7.6.10.2;10.2 Shift of Boundary Between Risk and Disease;387
7.6.10.3;10.3 Informed Decision-Making;387
7.6.11;11 Conclusion;388
7.6.12;References;388
7.7;27 The Impact of Behavioral Interventions in Public Health;392
7.7.1;1 Introduction;392
7.7.2;2 The Public Health Case for Behavioral Interventions;392
7.7.3;3 Creating the Evidence Base;393
7.7.4;4 What Has Deterred Wider Impact?;395
7.7.4.1;4.1 Translation of Evidence to Practice;395
7.7.4.2;4.2 Failure to be Holistic;396
7.7.4.3;4.3 Limited Use of Behavioral Models;396
7.7.5;5 Public Health as Social Movement;398
7.7.6;6 The Need for Robust Tools and Methods;400
7.7.6.1;6.1 Social Network Analysis;400
7.7.6.2;6.2 Hierarchical Linear Modeling;400
7.7.6.3;6.3 Geographical Information Systems;401
7.7.6.4;6.4 Health Impact Assessment (HIA);401
7.7.6.5;6.5 Social Movement Assessment;401
7.7.7;7 Conclusion;401
7.7.8;References;402
8;Part V Genetic Process in Behavioral Medicine;405
8.1;28 Quantitative Genetics in Behavioral Medicine;406
8.1.1;1 Introduction;406
8.1.2;2 Genetic Variance;408
8.1.2.1;2.1 Monogenetic Trait Variation;408
8.1.2.2;2.2 Polygenetic Trait Variation;410
8.1.3;3 Heritability Estimation;411
8.1.3.1;3.1 Twin Design;413
8.1.3.2;3.2 Structural Equation Models;415
8.1.4;4 Twin Studies on Cardiovascular Traits Often Used in Behavioral Medicine;418
8.1.5;5 Multivariate Structural Equation Models;418
8.1.5.1;5.1 Genetic and Environmental Correlation;420
8.1.6;6 GeneEnvironment Interaction;422
8.1.7;7 GeneEnvironment Correlation;424
8.1.8;8 Ongoing Evolution of Structural Equation Models for Twin Family Data;425
8.1.9;9 Conclusion;426
8.1.10;References;427
8.2;29 Candidate Gene and Genome-Wide Association Studies in Behavioral Medicine;430
8.2.1;1 Introduction;430
8.2.2;2 A (Very) Short Introduction to Molecular Genetics;431
8.2.3;3 Candidate Gene Association Studies;432
8.2.3.1;3.1 Cohort Studies: Continuous/Quantitative Traits;434
8.2.3.2;3.2 Case--Control Studies: Disease Traits;435
8.2.3.3;3.3 Gene Gene and Gene Environment Interaction;435
8.2.3.4;3.4 Power and Sample Size Considerations;435
8.2.3.5;3.5 Non-significance, Non-replication, and Inconsistency;437
8.2.4;4 Genome-Wide Association (GWA) Studies;437
8.2.4.1;4.1 Quality Control;438
8.2.4.2;4.2 Imputation of SNPs;439
8.2.4.3;4.3 Association Analysis;439
8.2.4.4;4.4 Multiple Testing;440
8.2.4.5;4.5 Population Stratification;441
8.2.4.6;4.6 Interaction and Haplotype Analysis;441
8.2.4.7;4.7 Meta-analysis;442
8.2.4.8;4.8 Copy Number Variants (CNVs);443
8.2.4.9;4.9 Genetical Genomics;443
8.2.5;5 Beyond Genome-Wide Association Studies;443
8.2.5.1;5.1 Rare Variants;443
8.2.5.2;5.2 Identification of Causal Variants;443
8.2.5.3;5.3 Clinical Relevance and Disease Prediction;444
8.2.6;6 Conclusions;444
8.2.7;References;444
8.3;30 Functional Genomic Approaches in Behavioral Medicine Research;449
8.3.1;1 Genomics Primer;449
8.3.1.1;1.1 Basics of Protein Synthesis;449
8.3.1.2;1.2 Determinants of Gene Expression;450
8.3.1.3;1.3 Measuring Gene Expression;452
8.3.2;2 Functional Genomics in Action;452
8.3.2.1;2.1 Background;453
8.3.2.2;2.2 Differential Gene Expression;454
8.3.2.3;2.3 Inflammatory Consequences;455
8.3.2.4;2.4 Underlying Mechanisms;456
8.3.2.5;2.5 Implications;456
8.3.2.6;2.6 Applicability;457
8.3.3;3 Conclusions;457
8.3.4;References;457
8.4;31 Genetics of Stress: Gene--Stress Correlationand Interaction;460
8.4.1;1 Introduction;460
8.4.1.1;1.1 Conceptualization and Measurement of Stress;460
8.4.2;2 GeneEnvironment Correlation;462
8.4.3;3 GeneStress Correlation;462
8.4.3.1;3.1 Stressful Life Events;462
8.4.3.2;3.2 Traumatic Experiences;464
8.4.3.3;3.3 Parenting and Family Environments;464
8.4.3.4;3.4 Perceived Stress and Social Support;465
8.4.3.5;3.5 Summary of Gene--Stress Correlation;466
8.4.4;4 GeneEnvironment Interaction;467
8.4.4.1;4.1 Examples of Gene--Environment Interaction;467
8.4.5;5 GeneStress Interaction;468
8.4.5.1;5.1 Gene--Stress Interaction: Life Events and Other Natural Stressors;469
8.4.5.1.1;5.1.1 Gene--Stress Interaction and the Challenge of Replication;470
8.4.5.2;5.2 Gene--Stress Interaction: Acute Stressors;473
8.4.6;6 Conclusions;475
8.4.7;References;477
8.5;32 Nicotine Dependence and Pharmacogenetics;484
8.5.1;1 Introduction;484
8.5.1.1;1.1 The Magnitude of the Problem;484
8.5.1.2;1.2 The Neurobiology of Nicotine Dependence;484
8.5.2;2 Heritability of Nicotine Dependence;485
8.5.2.1;2.1 Smoking Initiation and Dependence;485
8.5.2.2;2.2 Smoking Cessation and Persistence;485
8.5.3;3 Genetic Studies of Smoking Among Adolescents;485
8.5.3.1;3.1 Pharmacokinetic Candidate Genes;485
8.5.3.2;3.2 Pharmacodynamic Candidate Genes;486
8.5.3.2.1;3.2.1 Nicotinic Pathway Genes;486
8.5.3.2.2;3.2.2 Dopaminergic Pathway Genes;487
8.5.3.2.3;3.2.3 Serotonergic Pathway Genes;487
8.5.4;4 Genetic Studies of Smoking Among Adults;487
8.5.4.1;4.1 Linkage Studies;487
8.5.4.2;4.2 Pharmacokinetic Candidate Genes;488
8.5.4.3;4.3 Pharmacodynamic Candidate Genes;488
8.5.4.3.1;4.3.1 Nicotinic Pathway Genes;488
8.5.4.3.2;4.3.2 Dopaminergic Pathway Genes;489
8.5.4.3.3;4.3.3 Serotonergic Pathway Genes;489
8.5.4.3.4;4.3.4 Endogenous Opioid Pathway Genes;490
8.5.4.3.5;4.3.5 GABA-ergic Pathway;490
8.5.4.3.6;4.3.6 Miscellaneous Genes;490
8.5.5;5 Pharmacogenetic Studies of Nicotine Replacement Therapy;490
8.5.5.1;5.1 Pharmacokinetic Candidate Genes;490
8.5.5.2;5.2 Pharmacodynamic Candidate Genes;491
8.5.5.2.1;5.2.1 Nicotinic Pathway Genes;491
8.5.5.2.2;5.2.2 Dopaminergic Pathway Genes;491
8.5.5.2.3;5.2.3 Serotonergic Pathway Genes;491
8.5.5.2.4;5.2.4 Endogenous Opioid Pathway Genes;492
8.5.6;6 Pharmacogenetic Studies of Bupropion;492
8.5.6.1;6.1 Pharmacokinetic Candidate Genes;492
8.5.6.2;6.2 Pharmacodynamic Candidate Genes;493
8.5.6.2.1;6.2.1 Nicotinic Pathway Genes;493
8.5.6.2.2;6.2.2 Dopaminergic Pathway Candidate Genes;493
8.5.6.3;6.3 Summary of Pharmacogenetic Findings;493
8.5.7;7 Genetic Studies of Nicotine Dependence Endophenotypes;493
8.5.7.1;7.1 Genetic Associations with Nicotine Reward;493
8.5.7.2;7.2 Genetic Associations with Nicotine Sensitivity;494
8.5.7.3;7.3 Genetic Associations with Mood-Related Measures;494
8.5.7.4;7.4 Genetic Associations with Smoking Phenotypes in Neuroimaging Studies;494
8.5.8;8 Conclusions and Future Directions;495
8.5.8.1;8.1 Nicotine Dependence;495
8.5.8.2;8.2 Smoking Cessation;496
8.5.8.3;8.3 Future Directions;496
8.5.9;References;496
8.6;33 Genetics of Obesity and Diabetes;504
8.6.1;1 Introduction;505
8.6.2;2 Obesity;506
8.6.2.1;2.1 Candidate Gene Studies;506
8.6.2.2;2.2 Genome-Wide Studies;508
8.6.2.2.1;2.2.1 Genome-Wide Linkage Studies;508
8.6.2.2.2;2.2.2 Genome-Wide Association Studies;510
8.6.2.3;2.3 Obesity Susceptibility Genes, Food Intake and Energy Expenditure;513
8.6.3;3 Type 2 Diabetes;513
8.6.3.1;3.1 Candidate Gene Studies;513
8.6.3.2;3.2 Genome-Wide Studies;515
8.6.3.2.1;3.2.1 Genome-Wide Linkage Scans;515
8.6.3.2.2;3.2.2 Genome-Wide Association Studies;515
8.6.4;4 Genetic Prediction of Obesity and Diabetes;519
8.6.5;5 GeneEnvironment Interactions in Obesity and Diabetes;519
8.6.6;6 Future Directions;521
8.6.7;References;522
9;Part VI Development and the Life Course;527
9.1;34 A Life Course Approach to Health Behaviors: Theory and Methods;528
9.1.1;1 Introduction;528
9.1.2;2 Life Course Epidemiology;529
9.1.2.1;2.1 Life Course Epidemiology: Theoretical Models;529
9.1.2.2;2.2 Critical Period Versus Sensitive Periods;531
9.1.2.3;2.3 How Do We Disentangle the Different Life Course Models?;531
9.1.2.4;2.4 Methodological Challenges Encountered in Studying the Life Course;532
9.1.3;3 Life Course Perspective on Health Behavior Models;532
9.1.3.1;3.1 Individual-Level Models;532
9.1.3.2;3.2 Interpersonal Models;533
9.1.3.3;3.3 Community-Level Models;533
9.1.3.4;3.4 Ecological Perspective;533
9.1.4;4 Life Course Framework for Health Behavior;534
9.1.4.1;4.1 Socioeconomic Environment in Childhood and the Initiation and Maintenance of Health Behaviors;535
9.1.4.2;4.2 Initiation;536
9.1.4.3;4.3 Maintenance;536
9.1.4.4;4.4 Education;536
9.1.4.5;4.5 Tracking from Childhood and Adolescence into Adult Life;537
9.1.4.6;4.6 Behavioral Capital;537
9.1.4.7;4.7 Adult Transitions;537
9.1.5;5 Implications for Policy;538
9.1.6;6 Future Research;538
9.1.7;7 Conclusion;539
9.1.8;References;539
9.2;35 Prenatal Origins of Development Health;543
9.2.1;1 Introduction;543
9.2.2;2 Maternal Investment and Fetal Priming Within an Evolutionary Framework;545
9.2.3;3 The Link Between Birth Weight and Later Health;547
9.2.4;4 Prenatal Antecedents of Allergies and Asthma;549
9.2.5;5 Challenges to Fetal Well-being: Maternal Stress;550
9.2.6;6 The Mixed Blessing of Antenatal Corticosteroids;552
9.2.7;7 The Risks Posed by Prenatal and Perinatal Infection;553
9.2.8;8 Other Mediating Pathways of Importance: The Significance of Maternal Iron;554
9.2.9;9 Conclusion;555
9.2.10;References;556
9.3;36 The Impact of Early Adversity on Health;561
9.3.1;1 Early Family Environment;561
9.3.2;2 Childhood Socioeconomic Status;561
9.3.3;3 Early Family Environment;562
9.3.4;4 Genes and GeneEnvironment Interactions;563
9.3.5;5 Emotion Regulation;563
9.3.6;6 Social Skills;564
9.3.7;7 Chronic Negative Affect;564
9.3.8;8 Health Habits;565
9.3.9;9 Neural Regulation of Stress Responses;565
9.3.10;10 Impact of Early Environment on Biological Stress Responses;567
9.3.11;11 Early Adversity and Health Outcomes: Tests of the Model;568
9.3.12;12 Conclusions;569
9.3.13;References;569
9.4;37 Health Disparities in Adolescence;573
9.4.1;1 Introduction;573
9.4.2;2 Socioeconomic Disparities in Health Outcomes in Adolescence;573
9.4.3;3 Reasons for Why These Disparities Might Exist in Adolescence;576
9.4.3.1;3.1 Individual Level: Child Health Behaviors;576
9.4.3.2;3.2 Individual Level: Child Psychological Characteristics;577
9.4.3.3;3.3 Family Factors;577
9.4.3.4;3.4 Neighborhood Factors;578
9.4.3.5;3.5 Access to Care;579
9.4.3.6;3.6 Biological Pathways;580
9.4.4;4 Conclusion;581
9.4.5;References;582
9.5;38 Reproductive Hormones and Stages of Life in Women: Moderators of Mood and CardiovascularHealth;586
9.5.1;1 Menstrually Related Mood Disorders;586
9.5.1.1;1.1 Diagnosis and Prevalence;586
9.5.1.2;1.2 Pathogenesis of PMDD;586
9.5.1.2.1;1.2.1 Review of the Menstrual Cycle and Role of Gonadal Steroid Hormones in PMDD;586
9.5.1.2.2;1.2.2 Assessing Menstrual Cycle Phase and Cardiovascular Stress Reactivity in PMDD;587
9.5.1.2.3;1.2.3 The Role of Historical Factors in the Pathogenesis of PMDD;588
9.5.1.2.4;1.2.4 Progesterone-Derived GABAergic Neurosteroids in PMDD;588
9.5.1.3;1.3 Conclusions and Future Research Directions;589
9.5.2;2 Oxytocin and Vasopressin: Information from Animal Models;590
9.5.2.1;2.1 Oxytocin and Vasopressin: Information from Human Studies;592
9.5.2.2;2.2 Conclusions and Future Directions;594
9.5.3;3 The Menopause: Determining Female Reproductive Stage;594
9.5.3.1;3.1 Estrogen Deprivation Increases Risk for Depression and Medical Illness;595
9.5.3.2;3.2 Estrogen Replacement for Depression, Cardiovascular Disease, and Osteoporosis in Peri- and Postmenopausal Women;596
9.5.3.3;3.3 Conclusions and Future Research Directions;597
9.5.4;4 General Conclusions;598
9.5.5;References;598
9.6;39 Aging and Behavioral Medicine;603
9.6.1;1 The Importance of Aging;603
9.6.2;2 Aging and Behavioral Aspects;604
9.6.2.1;2.1 Social Function in Old Age;604
9.6.2.2;2.2 Psychological Function in Old Age;604
9.6.2.3;2.3 Lifestyle Behaviors in Old Age;606
9.6.3;3 Impact of Behavioral Factors on Health Outcomes in the Older Population;606
9.6.3.1;3.1 Mortality and Morbidity;606
9.6.3.2;3.2 Aging-Related Outcome: Physical Decline and Disability;607
9.6.3.3;3.3 Aging-Related Outcome: Frailty;609
9.6.3.4;3.4 Aging-Related Outcome: Cognitive Impairment;609
9.6.4;4 Specific Considerations for Behavioral Medicine in the Aging Population;610
9.6.4.1;4.1 Selective Survival;610
9.6.4.2;4.2 Somatic Confounding;611
9.6.4.3;4.3 Differential Role of Physiological Stress Mechanisms in the Oldest Old;611
9.6.5;5 Concluding Remarks;612
9.6.6;References;613
10;Part VII Biological Measures and Biomarkers;616
10.1;40 Use of Biological Measures in Behavioral Medicine;617
10.1.1;1 Introduction;617
10.1.2;2 Biological Measures in Animal Experiments;617
10.1.3;3 Population-Level Epidemiological Studies;618
10.1.3.1;3.1 Biomarkers of Disease State;618
10.1.3.2;3.2 Biological Indicators of Health or Resistance to Disease;619
10.1.3.3;3.3 Interpretation of Biomarker Results in Population Studies;620
10.1.4;4 Psychophysiological Stress Testing;622
10.1.5;5 Naturalistic and Ambulatory Monitoring of Biological Variables;623
10.1.5.1;5.1 Cortisol;623
10.1.5.2;5.2 Cardiovascular Measures;624
10.1.5.3;5.3 Musculoskeletal Measures;625
10.1.5.4;5.4 New Developments in Ambulatory Monitoring Devices;626
10.1.5.5;5.5 Summary and Limitations;626
10.1.6;6 Conclusions;628
10.1.7;References;628
10.2;41 Laboratory Stress Testing Methodology;631
10.2.1;1 Introduction;631
10.2.2;2 The Laboratory Setting May Have Powerful, Unintended Effects;632
10.2.2.1;2.1 Experimenter Characteristics;632
10.2.2.2;2.2 Experimenter Behavior;633
10.2.2.3;2.3 Delivery of Instructions;633
10.2.2.4;2.4 The Social Context;634
10.2.2.5;2.5 Evaluation Apprehension;634
10.2.2.6;2.6 Demand Characteristics;635
10.2.2.7;2.7 Experimenter Expectancies;635
10.2.3;3 Methodological and Procedural Considerations;635
10.2.3.1;3.1 Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs;635
10.2.3.2;3.2 Use of Multiple Stressors Within a Single Session;636
10.2.3.3;3.3 Inter-task Baseline;637
10.2.3.4;3.4 Sampling Framework Is Specific to the Biological Outcomes;637
10.2.3.5;3.5 Pre-session Instructions and Controls;638
10.2.4;4 The Experimental Session;639
10.2.4.1;4.1 Adaptation;639
10.2.4.2;4.2 Instructions;639
10.2.4.3;4.3 Instrumentation;639
10.2.4.4;4.4 Baseline;639
10.2.4.5;4.5 Exposure to Stress;640
10.2.5;5 Selection of the Stressor;640
10.2.5.1;5.1 Conceptuality;640
10.2.5.2;5.2 Feasibility;640
10.2.5.3;5.3 Psychometric Properties;640
10.2.5.4;5.4 Usage;641
10.2.6;6 Stressor/Task Domains and Specific Tasks;641
10.2.6.1;6.1 Active Coping;641
10.2.6.2;6.2 Emotional Arousal;641
10.2.6.3;6.3 Social Interaction Tasks, Speech Tasks;642
10.2.6.3.1;6.3.1 The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST);642
10.2.6.4;6.4 The Cold Pressor;642
10.2.6.5;6.5 Duration of Stressor Exposure;642
10.2.7;7 Manipulation Checks/Probe Measures;643
10.2.8;8 Statistical/Measurement Issues;643
10.2.8.1;8.1 Measurement Reliability;643
10.2.8.2;8.2 Type I Error;644
10.2.8.3;8.3 Assessment of Post-Stress Recovery;645
10.2.9;9 Summary and Conclusion;645
10.2.10;References;645
10.3;42 Stress and Allostasis;647
10.3.1;1 Introduction;647
10.3.2;2 Stress and Allostatic Overload-Related Illnesses;650
10.3.3;3 Circadian Timing: Brain and Body Clocks;651
10.3.3.1;3.1 Disruption of Circadian Rhythms as an Allostatic State;653
10.3.3.2;3.2 Circadian Dysfunction Is a Hallmark of Many Physical and Neural Disorders;653
10.3.4;4 Concluding Remarks;654
10.3.5;References;655
10.4;43 Neuroendocrine Measures in Behavioral Medicine;657
10.4.1;1 Scope of Neuroendocrine Research;657
10.4.1.1;1.1 Neuroendocrine Systems;657
10.4.1.1.1;1.1.1 The Hypothalamic--Pituitary Unit;657
10.4.1.1.2;1.1.2 Inhibitory Feedback Regulation of Neuroendocrine Activity;658
10.4.1.2;1.2 Methodological Aspects: What Sort of Biological Samples Are Useful?;658
10.4.1.3;1.3 Methodological Aspects: When to Measure Neuroendocrine Markers?;659
10.4.1.3.1;1.3.1 Basal Hormone Assessment and Endocrine Circadian/Ultradian Rhythms;659
10.4.1.3.2;1.3.2 Challenge Tests;659
10.4.1.4;1.4 Confounding Factors in Neuroendocrine Research;659
10.4.2;2 The HypothalamicPituitary Adrenal Axis;660
10.4.2.1;2.1 Cortisol Awakening Rise and Day Profiles;660
10.4.2.2;2.2 The HPA Axis Under Challenge;661
10.4.3;3 The HypothalamicPituitary Gonadal Axis;662
10.4.4;4 HypothalamicPituitaryThyroid Axis;663
10.4.5;5 The HypothalamicPituitary Growth Hormone Axis;663
10.4.6;6 The Prolactinergic System;664
10.4.7;7 The Oxytocinergic System;664
10.4.8;8 The Vasopressinergic System;664
10.4.9;9 The Sympatho-Adrenal-Medullary System;664
10.4.10;10 Insulin and the Pancreas;665
10.4.11;11 Summary and Outlook;665
10.4.12;References;666
10.5;44 Immune Measures in Behavioral Medicine Research: Procedures and Implications;669
10.5.1;1 Introduction;669
10.5.2;2 Circulatory Measures;669
10.5.2.1;2.1 Natural Killer Cells;669
10.5.2.1.1;2.1.1 Clinical Studies Involving Natural Killer Cells;670
10.5.2.2;2.2 T Cells;670
10.5.2.2.1;2.2.1 Clinical Studies Involving T Lymphocytes;672
10.5.2.3;2.3 Reactivation of Latent Herpes Viruses;673
10.5.2.3.1;2.3.1 Clinical Studies Involving the Reactivation of Latent Viruses;673
10.5.3;3 Elicited Functional Measures;674
10.5.3.1;3.1 Wound Healing;674
10.5.3.1.1;3.1.1 Clinical Studies of Wound Healing;675
10.5.3.2;3.2 Experimental Infection and Vaccination;675
10.5.3.2.1;3.2.1 Clinical Studies Involving Experimental Infection and Vaccination;676
10.5.4;4 Importance of Animal Models;677
10.5.5;5 Conclusion;678
10.5.6;References;679
10.6;45 Circulating Biomarkers of Inflammation, Adhesion, and Hemostasis in Behavioral Medicine;682
10.6.1;1 Cytokines: Description and Classification;682
10.6.1.1;1.1 Cytokines: Central Nervous System (CNS) Interactions;683
10.6.1.2;1.2 Cytokines: Hypothalamic--Pituitary--Adrenal Axis (HPA) Interactions;683
10.6.1.3;1.3 Cytokines, Stress, Negative Affect, and Sleep;684
10.6.1.3.1;1.3.1 Cytokines and Acute Stress;684
10.6.1.3.2;1.3.2 Cytokines and Chronic Stress;685
10.6.1.3.3;1.3.3 Cytokines and Fatigue;686
10.6.1.3.4;1.3.4 Cytokines and Depression;686
10.6.1.3.5;1.3.5 Cytokines and Sleep;687
10.6.1.4;1.4 Cytokine Measurement;687
10.6.2;2 Leukocyte Trafficking and Cellular Adhesion Molecules;689
10.6.2.1;2.1 CAMs and Behavioral Stressors;689
10.6.2.1.1;2.1.1 CAMs and Acute Behavioral Stressors;689
10.6.2.1.2;2.1.2 CAMs and Chronic Behavioral Stressors;690
10.6.2.2;2.2 Underlying Mechanisms and Mediators: Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) and Hypothalamic--Pituitary--Adrenal (HPA) Cortical Axis Activation;690
10.6.2.3;2.3 CAM Measurement;691
10.6.3;3 Hemostasis;691
10.6.3.1;3.1 Hemostasis Factors and Cardiovascular Disease;692
10.6.3.2;3.2 Effects of Behavioral Stressors and Negative Affect on Hemostasis;693
10.6.3.2.1;3.2.1 Acute Stressors;693
10.6.3.2.2;3.2.2 Modulators of the Acute Procoagulant Stress Response;693
10.6.3.2.3;3.2.3 Hemostasis and Chronic Stressors;695
10.6.3.2.4;3.2.4 Hemostasis and Negative Affect;695
10.6.3.3;3.3 Physiological Mechanisms of Acute and Chronic Stress Effects on Hemostasis;695
10.6.3.4;3.4 Coagulation Measurement;696
10.6.4;4 Inflammation, Adhesion, and Hemostasis: Clinical Relevance and Future Directions in Behavioral Medicine;696
10.6.5;References;697
10.7;46 The Metabolic Syndrome, Obesity, and Insulin Resistance;701
10.7.1;1 Defining the Metabolic Syndrome;701
10.7.2;2 Epidemiology of Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome;705
10.7.3;3 Lifestyle Modification of the Metabolic Syndrome, Type 2 Diabetes, and CVD;705
10.7.4;4 Pathophysiology of the Metabolic Syndrome;707
10.7.5;5 Assessment of the Metabolic Syndrome and Insulin Resistance;709
10.7.5.1;5.1 Insulin Resistance and Hyperglycemia;709
10.7.5.2;5.2 Dyslipidemia;711
10.7.5.3;5.3 Blood Pressure;711
10.7.5.4;5.4 Obesity and Waist Circumference;711
10.7.6;6 Conclusion;712
10.7.7;References;712
10.8;47 The Non-invasive Assessment of Autonomic Influences on the Heart Using Impedance Cardiography and Heart Rate Variability;718
10.8.1;1 Autonomic Balance and Health;718
10.8.2;2 Aspects of Cardiac Function: Chronotropy, Inotropy, and Dromotropy;719
10.8.3;3 The Baroreflex;720
10.8.4;4 Impedance Cardiography;721
10.8.4.1;4.1 The Genetics of Impedance Derived Measures;723
10.8.4.2;4.2 Summary;723
10.8.5;5 Heart Rate Variability;724
10.8.5.1;5.1 Physiological Regulation;725
10.8.5.2;5.2 Emotional Regulation;725
10.8.5.3;5.3 Cognitive Regulation;726
10.8.5.4;5.4 Models of Neural Control of HRV;726
10.8.5.4.1;5.4.1 The Polyvagal Theory;726
10.8.5.4.2;5.4.2 The Model of Neurovisceral Integration;726
10.8.5.5;5.5 Measures of HRV;727
10.8.5.6;5.6 Time Domain Indices of HRV;727
10.8.5.7;5.7 Frequency Domain Indices of HRV;728
10.8.5.7.1;5.7.1 The Ultra low-Frequency Band: 0.003 Hz;728
10.8.5.7.2;5.7.2 The Very Low-Frequency Band: 0.003 0.04 Hz;729
10.8.5.7.3;5.7.3 The Low-Frequency Band: 0.04 0.15 Hz;729
10.8.5.7.4;5.7.4 The High-Frequency Band: 0.15 0.4 Hz;729
10.8.5.8;5.8 The Genetics of HRV;731
10.8.5.9;5.9 Summary;731
10.8.6;6 Conclusion;731
10.8.7;References;732
10.9;48 Cardiac Measures;736
10.9.1;1 Myocardial Imaging;736
10.9.1.1;1.1 SPECT Imaging;736
10.9.1.2;1.2 MUGA Imaging;737
10.9.1.3;1.3 PET Imaging;738
10.9.1.4;1.4 CT Angiography;738
10.9.1.5;1.5 Cardiac MRI;738
10.9.2;2 Peripheral Arterial Tonometry (PAT);739
10.9.3;3 Electrocardiogram (ECG) Measures;739
10.9.3.1;3.1 Standard 12 Lead and Ambulatory Monitoring;739
10.9.3.2;3.2 ECG Responses to Stress;740
10.9.4;4 ECHO Measurements;741
10.9.5;5 Differences Between Exercise and Psychological Stress-Induced Cardiac Responses;741
10.9.6;6 Summary;741
10.9.7;References;741
10.10;49 Behavioral Medicine and Sleep: Concepts, Measures, and Methods;743
10.10.1;1 Introduction;743
10.10.2;2 Dimensions of Sleep Important to Health and Functioning;744
10.10.2.1;2.1 Sleep Duration;744
10.10.2.1.1;2.1.1 Sleep Duration: Definitions and Measurement;744
10.10.2.1.2;2.1.2 Sleep Duration and Health: Evidence;746
10.10.2.2;2.2 Sleep Continuity;748
10.10.2.2.1;2.2.1 Sleep Continuity: Definitions and Measurement;748
10.10.2.2.2;2.2.2 Sleep Continuity and Health: Evidence;749
10.10.2.3;2.3 Sleep Architecture;750
10.10.2.3.1;2.3.1 Sleep Architecture: Definitions and Measurement;750
10.10.2.3.2;2.3.2 Sleep Architecture and Health: Evidence;751
10.10.2.4;2.4 Sleep Quality;752
10.10.2.4.1;2.4.1 Sleep Quality: Definitions and Measurement;752
10.10.2.4.2;2.4.2 Sleep Quality and Health: Evidence;752
10.10.3;3 Behavioral Medicine and Sleep: Future Directions;753
10.10.4;References;754
11;Part VIII Brain Function and Neuroimaging;760
11.1;50 Neuroimaging Methods in Behavioral Medicine;761
11.1.1;1 Overview of Neuroimaging Methods;761
11.1.2;2 Functional Neuroimaging Methods;761
11.1.2.1;2.1 Positron Emission Tomography;762
11.1.2.2;2.2 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging;763
11.1.2.3;2.3 Arterial Spin Labeling;765
11.1.3;3 Structural MRI Methods;766
11.1.3.1;3.1 Volumetric MRI;766
11.1.3.2;3.2 Diffusion MRI;766
11.1.4;4 Neurochemical Imaging;766
11.1.4.1;4.1 Magnetization Transfer MRI;766
11.1.4.2;4.2 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy;766
11.1.5;5 Electrophysiological and Optical Imaging;767
11.1.5.1;5.1 Electroencephalograph (EEG);767
11.1.5.2;5.2 Magnetoencephalography (MEG);767
11.1.5.3;5.3 Optical Imaging;768
11.1.5.3.1;5.3.1 Near InfraRed Spectroscopy (NIRS);768
11.1.5.3.2;5.3.2 Event-Related Optical Signal (EROS);768
11.1.6;6 Some Basic Design Principles in Functional Neuroimaging;769
11.1.7;7 Summary;770
11.1.8;References;771
11.2;51 Applications of Neuroimaging in Behavioral Medicine;774
11.2.1;1 Value of Neuroimaging Applications in Medicine;774
11.2.2;2 Behavioral Medicine Applications;774
11.2.2.1;2.1 Psychological Processes;774
11.2.2.2;2.2 Social and Interpersonal Processes;776
11.2.2.3;2.3 Genetic Processes;777
11.2.2.4;2.4 Development and the Life Course;780
11.2.2.5;2.5 Biomarkers;780
11.2.2.6;2.6 Behavioral and Psychosocial Intervention;781
11.2.2.7;2.7 Neuroimaging and Treatment;783
11.2.2.8;2.8 Epidemiology and Population;783
11.2.3;3 Stress Reactivity;783
11.2.4;4 Conclusions;787
11.2.5;References;788
11.3;52 Neuroimaging of Depression and Other Emotional States;794
11.3.1;1 Introduction;794
11.3.2;2 Normative Emotional States;796
11.3.3;3 Overview of Brain Changes in MDD;798
11.3.4;4 Structural Brain Changes in MDD;799
11.3.5;5 Functional Brain Changes in MDD;800
11.3.6;6 Changes in Brain Function due to Antidepressant Treatment;802
11.3.7;7 Brain-Based Treatments of Depression;803
11.3.8;8 Conclusions;804
11.3.9;References;804
11.4;53 The Electric Brain and Behavioral Medicine;811
11.4.1;1 Introduction;811
11.4.2;2 Cardiovascular Disease;813
11.4.3;3 Diabetes and Neuroendocrine Disorder;815
11.4.3.1;3.1 Hypoglycemia;815
11.4.3.2;3.2 Hypoglycemic Awareness;816
11.4.3.3;3.3 Long-Term Effects of Diabetes;817
11.4.4;4 EEG and the Effects of Hormone Treatment;817
11.4.5;5 Stress;818
11.4.6;6 Cancer;819
11.4.7;7 Immunological Disorders;820
11.4.7.1;7.1 Hepatitis B and C;820
11.4.7.2;7.2 Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Lupus;820
11.4.8;8 Chronic Pain;821
11.4.8.1;8.1 Fibromyalgia;821
11.4.8.2;8.2 Chronic Fatigue Syndrome;822
11.4.8.3;8.3 Rheumatoid Arthritis and Low Back Pain;823
11.4.9;9 Respiratory Diseases;823
11.4.10;10 Kidney/Blood Diseases;824
11.4.11;11 Health Behaviors;825
11.4.12;12 Biofeedback;826
11.4.13;13 Conclusion;827
11.4.14;14 Appendix;827
11.4.15;References;829
12;Part IX Statistical Methods;833
12.1;54 Reporting Results in Behavioral Medicine;834
12.1.1;1 Introduction;834
12.1.2;2 Some General Principles;835
12.1.3;3 The Introduction and Background Section;835
12.1.4;4 The Methods Section;836
12.1.4.1;4.1 Design Considerations;836
12.1.4.2;4.2 Describing Measures;837
12.1.4.3;4.3 The Analytic Plan;838
12.1.4.4;4.4 The Confirmatory Versus Exploratory Continuum;840
12.1.4.5;4.5 Statistical Power;841
12.1.5;5 The Results Section;841
12.1.5.1;5.1 Describing the Sample;841
12.1.5.2;5.2 Primary Results;842
12.1.5.3;5.3 Secondary Outcomes and Analyses;842
12.1.5.4;5.4 Some Specific Cases;843
12.1.5.4.1;5.4.1 Group Means or Frequencies;844
12.1.5.4.2;5.4.2 Multivariable Models: Some General Considerations;844
12.1.5.4.3;5.4.3 Results from Regression Models;847
12.1.5.4.4;5.4.4 Confounding and Mediation;849
12.1.6;6 Tables;850
12.1.7;7 Graphics;851
12.1.8;8 Interpretation;854
12.1.9;References;855
12.2;55 Moderators and Mediators: The MacArthur Updated View;858
12.2.1;1 Introduction;858
12.2.2;2 M Moderates the Effect of T on O ;860
12.2.3;3 M Mediates the Effect of T on O ;860
12.2.4;4 Issues Raised in the Consideration of the MacArthur Approach;861
12.2.4.1;4.1 Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies;861
12.2.4.2;4.2 Variable Definition;861
12.2.4.3;4.3 First Moderation, then Mediation;861
12.2.4.4;4.4 The Problem of Causal Inferences;862
12.2.4.5;4.5 When Treatment Choice Moderates Event/Change on Outcome;863
12.2.4.6;4.6 How Distinct Must M,T,O Be?;863
12.2.5;5 Extensions to Other Relationships;863
12.2.5.1;5.1M Is Proxy to T with Respect to O;863
12.2.5.2;5.2 M and T Are Overlapping Risk Factors with Respect to O;864
12.2.5.3;5.3 M and T Are Independent Risk Factors for O ;864
12.2.6;6 Implementation Questions;864
12.2.6.1;6.1 Population Specificity;864
12.2.6.2;6.2 Studies to Detect and to Confirm Moderation or Mediation;865
12.2.6.3;6.3 ''Proving'' Lack of Correlation;865
12.2.6.4;6.4 The Clinical Significance of Moderation/Mediation?;865
12.2.6.5;6.5 Will Methods Developed for the B''K Model Still ''Work'' with the MacArthur Model? Will Conclusions Change?;866
12.2.7;7 Conclusions;868
12.2.8;References;868
12.3;56 Multilevel Modeling;870
12.3.1;1 Introduction;870
12.3.2;2 Multilevel Framework: A Necessity for Understanding Ecologic Effects;871
12.3.3;3 A Typology of Multilevel Data Structures;872
12.3.4;4 The Distinction Between Levels and Variables;873
12.3.5;5 Multilevel Analysis;873
12.3.5.1;5.1 Evaluating Sources of Variation: Compositional and/or Contextual;873
12.3.5.2;5.2 Describing Contextual Heterogeneity;874
12.3.5.3;5.3 Characterizing and Explaining the Contextual Variations;874
12.3.6;6 Specifying Multilevel Models;875
12.3.7;7 Variance Component or Random Intercepts Model;875
12.3.8;8 Modeling Places: Fixed or Random?;876
12.3.9;9 Random Coefficient or Random Slopes Model;878
12.3.10;10 Modeling the Fixed Effect of a Neighborhood Predictor;879
12.3.11;11 Exploiting the Flexibility of Multilevel Models to Incorporating Realistic Complexity;880
12.3.12;12 Summary;881
12.3.13;References;881
12.4;57 Structural Equation Modeling in Behavioral Medicine Research;883
12.4.1;1 Introduction;883
12.4.2;2 Model Specification;883
12.4.2.1;2.1 Notation;884
12.4.2.2;2.2 Path Diagram;884
12.4.3;3 Parameter Estimation and Model Fit;886
12.4.3.1;3.1 Path Analysis;887
12.4.3.2;3.2 Model Parameters;888
12.4.4;4 Measurement Model;888
12.4.4.1;4.1 Measurement Model Parameters;890
12.4.4.2;4.2 Formative Indicators;890
12.4.5;5 Mean Structures;890
12.4.6;6 Multiple Groups;891
12.4.7;7 Latent Growth Model;891
12.4.7.1;7.1 Latent Difference Scores;892
12.4.8;8 Missing Data;892
12.4.9;9 Sample Size and Power;893
12.4.10;10 Categorical Outcomes;893
12.4.11;11 Latent Class and Mixture and Multilevel Models;894
12.4.12;12 Concluding Comments;894
12.4.13;References;894
12.5;58 Meta-analysis;897
12.5.1;1 Introduction;897
12.5.2;2 Effect Sizes;897
12.5.2.1;2.1 Studies Measuring Outcomes on a Binary Scale;898
12.5.2.2;2.2 Studies Measuring Outcomes on a Continuous Scale;899
12.5.3;3 Combining Estimates of Effect Size Across Studies;900
12.5.3.1;3.1 Fixed Effects Methods Combining Estimates;900
12.5.3.1.1;3.1.1 Example;901
12.5.3.2;3.2 Mantel-Haenszel Methods;903
12.5.3.2.1;3.2.1 Example;904
12.5.3.3;3.3 Random Effects Methods;904
12.5.3.3.1;3.3.1 Example;907
12.5.4;4 Methods for Testing for Differences Between Groups of Studies;907
12.5.5;5 Forest Plots;908
12.5.6;6 Publication Bias;908
12.5.7;7 Conclusion;908
12.5.8;References;908
13;Part X Behavioral and Psychosocial Interventions;910
13.1;59 Trial Design in Behavioral Medicine;911
13.1.1;1 Introduction;911
13.1.2;2 Control Conditions;911
13.1.2.1;2.1 Control vs. Comparison;911
13.1.2.2;2.2 The Standard Hierarchy of Control Conditions;912
13.1.2.3;2.3 Usual Care, Treatment as Usual, and Standard of Care Controls;913
13.1.2.4;2.4 Usual Care and Its Variants in the Hierarchy of Control Conditions;916
13.1.3;3 Design Issues in Behavioral Medicine Research;916
13.1.3.1;3.1 Efficacy and Effectiveness Trials;916
13.1.3.2;3.2 Factorial Designs in Efficacy Research;918
13.1.3.3;3.3 Safety Trials;919
13.1.3.4;3.4 Mediation Trials;920
13.1.3.5;3.5 Statistical Power and Trial Design;922
13.1.3.6;3.6 Falsification Research;923
13.1.3.7;3.7 Mechanistic Research;923
13.1.4;4 Summary;924
13.1.5;References;924
13.2;60 Methodological Issues in Randomized Controlled Trials for the Treatment of Psychiatric Comorbidity in Medical Illness;926
13.2.1;1 Why Do We Need RCTs for Treatments for Psychiatric Disorders in Medical Patients?;926
13.2.2;2 The Influences of Medical Illness on Psychological Functioning;926
13.2.2.1;2.1 Occurrence of Psychiatric Disorders in Medical Populations;926
13.2.2.2;2.2 Identifying Psychiatric Disorders in Medical Populations;928
13.2.2.3;2.3 Measurement Issues Specific to Medical Populations;928
13.2.3;3 Effects of Medical Illness and Environmental Factors on Psychiatric Symptoms Longitudinally: Implications for RCTs;929
13.2.3.1;3.1 Interactions Between Medical Illness and Psychiatric Symptoms Longitudinally;930
13.2.3.2;3.2 The Influence of Environmental Factors on Psychiatric Symptoms;932
13.2.4;4 The Effects of Medical Illness on Access and Adherence to Psychological and Behavioral Treatments;933
13.2.5;5 Reconceptualizing RCTs of Psychological and Behavioral Treatments in Medical Populations to Include Prognosis;934
13.2.6;6 Summary;936
13.2.7;References;936
13.3;61 Quality of Life in Light of Appraisal and Response Shift;939
13.3.1;1 Patient-Reported Outcomes of Quality of Life;940
13.3.1.1;1.1 Generic and Disease-Specific Measures;940
13.3.1.2;1.2 The Value of Evaluating QOL;941
13.3.2;2 Methodological Advances in QOL Research;941
13.3.3;3 The Influence of Adaptation and Appraisal Processes on QOL Evaluations;942
13.3.3.1;3.1 History of Response Shift;942
13.3.3.2;3.2 Theoretical Foundation of Response Shift;943
13.3.3.3;3.3 The Relationship Between QOL and Response Shift to Other Frameworks from Psychology and the Social Sciences;944
13.3.4;4 Limitations of Current Measures of QOL in Light of Response Shift;945
13.3.4.1;4.1 Psychometric Properties of QOL Measures in Light of Response Shift;945
13.3.4.2;4.2 Implications of Response Shift for Evaluation of Psychosocial and Healthcare Interventions;945
13.3.5;5 Methodological Advances in Evaluating Changes in QOL and Response Shift Detection;946
13.3.6;6 Future Directions in QOL and Response Shift Research;948
13.3.7;References;948
13.4;62 Behavioral Interventions for Prevention and Management of Chronic Disease;953
13.4.1;1 Background;953
13.4.2;2 Overview of Systematic Reviews of Behavioral Change Interventions;954
13.4.2.1;2.1 Search Strategy and Selection Criteria;954
13.4.2.2;2.2 Characteristics of the Intervention Trials in the Systematic Reviews;955
13.4.2.2.1;2.2.1 Target Population;955
13.4.2.2.2;2.2.2 Intervention Setting;955
13.4.2.2.3;2.2.3 Mode of Delivery;955
13.4.2.2.4;2.2.4 Purpose of Systematic Reviews;955
13.4.2.3;2.3 Intervention Outcomes;961
13.4.2.3.1;2.3.1 Dietary Interventions;961
13.4.2.3.2;2.3.2 Exercise Only Interventions;961
13.4.2.3.3;2.3.3 Combined Diet and Exercise/Weight Reduction Interventions;962
13.4.2.3.4;2.3.4 Tobacco Control Interventions;962
13.4.2.3.5;2.3.5 Multiple Risk Factor Interventions;963
13.4.2.3.6;2.3.6 Disease Management Interventions;963
13.4.3;3 Relevant Findings from Narrative Reviews;964
13.4.3.1;3.1 Intervention Settings;964
13.4.3.2;3.2 Information and Communications Technology in Intervention Delivery;964
13.4.3.2.1;3.2.1 Web-Based Interventions;964
13.4.3.2.2;3.2.2 Interventions Delivered via Telephone;965
13.4.3.3;3.3 Effectiveness of Theory-Based Interventions;965
13.4.4;4 Lifestyle Change Current Issues and Future Challenges;966
13.4.4.1;4.1 Features of the Intervention and Its Delivery;966
13.4.4.2;4.2 Intervention Sustainability in the ''Real World'' and Future Uptake of Interventions;969
13.4.5;5 Summary;970
13.4.6;References;970
13.5;63 Psychosocial--Behavioral Interventions and ChronicDisease;973
13.5.1;1 Introduction;973
13.5.2;2 Coronary Heart Disease;974
13.5.2.1;2.1 Risk Factors;974
13.5.2.2;2.2 Psychosocial--Behavioral Interventions with Acute Coronary Syndrome Patients;975
13.5.3;3 HIV/AIDS;977
13.5.3.1;3.1 Disease Processes in HIV/AIDS;977
13.5.3.2;3.2 Factors Influencing HIV Disease Progression;978
13.5.3.2.1;3.2.1 Mood and Affect;978
13.5.3.2.2;3.2.2 Medication Adherence;978
13.5.3.2.3;3.2.3 Stressors and Stress-Related Processes;979
13.5.3.3;3.3 Psychosocial--Behavioral Intervention in HIV/AIDS;979
13.5.3.3.1;3.3.1 Primary Prevention Interventions;979
13.5.3.3.2;3.3.2 Secondary Prevention to Improve Antiretroviral Medication Adherence;980
13.5.3.3.3;3.3.3 Secondary Prevention to Reduce Depression and Stress-Related Processes;980
13.5.4;4 Cancer;982
13.5.4.1;4.1 Risk Factors for Initiation, Promotion, and Recurrence;982
13.5.4.2;4.2 Psychosocial Factors and Disease Progression;982
13.5.4.3;4.3 Psychosocial Interventions, Optimizing Health/Survival and Improving Quality of Life;984
13.5.4.3.1;4.3.1 Improving Psychosocial Adjustment and QOL;984
13.5.4.3.2;4.3.2 Psychosocial--Behavioral Intervention and Survival;985
13.5.5;5 Conclusions;986
13.5.6;References;987
13.6;64 The Role of Interactive Communication Technologies in Behavioral Medicine;992
13.6.1;1 Introduction;992
13.6.2;2 The Reach of eHealth Applications;992
13.6.2.1;2.1 Technology Channels;993
13.6.2.2;2.2 Organizational Channels;994
13.6.3;3 The Efficacy of eHealth Applications;995
13.6.3.1;3.1 Self-Navigated Help Seeking;995
13.6.3.2;3.2 Tailored Expert Systems;996
13.6.3.3;3.3 Online Support Groups and Virtual Communities;997
13.6.4;4 The Future of eHealth;998
13.6.4.1;4.1 Integration of Consumer and Medical Informatics Systems;998
13.6.4.2;4.2 Integration of Consumer and Public Health Informatics Systems;999
13.6.4.3;4.3 Integration of Consumer and Bioinformatics Systems;999
13.6.5;5 Conclusion;1000
13.6.6;References;1000
13.7;65 Behavioral Medicine, Prevention, and Health Reform: Linking Evidence-Based Clinical and Public Health Strategies for Population Health Behavior Change;1003
13.7.1;1 Introduction;1003
13.7.2;2 Behavioral Medicine and Health Behavior Change: History and Paradigms;1004
13.7.3;3 Evidence-Based Clinical and Public Health Behavior Change Interventions and Guidelines;1006
13.7.3.1;3.1 The United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF);1007
13.7.3.2;3.2 The Community Preventive Services Task Force (CTF);1008
13.7.3.3;3.3 Use of Evidence-Based Clinical and Public Health Behavior Change Strategies;1010
13.7.4;4 Linking Evidence-Based Clinical and Community Strategies;1011
13.7.4.1;4.1 Multiple Risk Health Behavior Change;1011
13.7.4.2;4.2 Tobacco Cessation and Control;1012
13.7.4.2.1;4.2.1 Practice-Level;1013
13.7.4.2.2;4.2.2 Health Plan Level;1013
13.7.4.2.3;4.2.3 Community Level;1014
13.7.4.2.4;4.2.4 State Level;1014
13.7.5;5 Recommendations for the Future for Behavioral Medicine Research and Practice;1015
13.7.6;References;1015
14;Subject Index;1018
