Cuffey / Paterson The Physics of Glaciers

4. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-0-08-091912-6
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 704 Seiten

The Physics of Glaciers, Fourth Edition, discusses the physical principles that underlie the behavior and characteristics of glaciers. The term glacier refers to all bodies of ice created by the accumulation of snowfall, e.g., mountain glaciers, ice caps, continental ice sheets, and ice shelves. Glaciology-the study of all forms of ice-is an interdisciplinary field encompassing physics, geology, atmospheric science, mathematics, and others. This book covers various aspects of glacier studies, including the transformation of snow to ice, grain-scale structures and ice deformation, mass exchange processes, glacial hydrology, glacier flow, and the impact of climate change. The present edition features two new chapters: 'Ice Sheets and the Earth System” and 'Ice, Sea Level, and Contemporary Climate Change.” The chapter on ice core studies has been updated from the previous version with new material. The materials on the flow of mountain glaciers, ice sheets, ice streams, and ice shelves have been combined into a single chapter entitled 'The Flow of Ice Masses.”
-Completely updated and revised, with 30% new material including climate change
-Accessible to students, and an essential guide for researchers
-Authored by preeminent glaciologists

Autoren/Hrsg.

Cuffey, Kurt M.

Paterson, W. S. B.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Title Page;2
3;Copyright Page;3
4;Table of Contents;4
5;Preface to Fourth Edition;12
6;Preface to First Edition;13
7;Chapter 1. Introduction;14
7.1;1.1 Introduction;14
7.2;1.2 History and Perspective;15
7.3;1.3 Organization of the Book;19
7.4;Further Reading;22
8;Chapter 2. Transformation of Snow to Ice;24
8.1;2.1 Introduction;24
8.2;2.2 Snow, Firn, and Ice;24
8.2.1;2.2.1 Density of Ice;25
8.3;2.3 Zones in a Glacier;26
8.3.1;2.3.1 Distribution of Zones;28
8.4;2.4 Variation of Density with Depth in Firn;29
8.5;2.5 Snow to Ice Transformation in a Dry-snow Zone;32
8.5.1;2.5.1 Processes;32
8.5.2;2.5.2 Models of Density Profiles in Dry Firn;35
8.5.3;2.5.3 Reduction of Gas Mobility;38
8.6;2.6 Hoar Layers;39
8.7;2.7 Transformation When Meltwater Is Present;40
8.8;Further Reading;41
9;Chapter 3. Grain-Scale Structures and Deformation of Ice;42
9.1;3.1 Introduction;42
9.2;3.2 Properties of a Single Ice Crystal;43
9.2.1;3.2.1 Structure;43
9.2.2;3.2.2 Deformation of a Single Crystal;45
9.3;3.3 Polycrystalline Ice: Grain-scale Forms and Processes;46
9.3.1;3.3.1 Orientation Fabrics: Brief Description;46
9.3.2;3.3.2 Impurities and Bubbles;46
9.3.3;3.3.3 Texture and Recrystallization;48
9.3.4;3.3.4 Formation of C-axis Orientation Fabrics;56
9.3.5;3.3.5 Mechanisms of Polycrystalline Deformation;61
9.4;3.4 Bulk Creep Properties of Polycrystalline Ice;64
9.4.1;3.4.1 Strain Rate and Incompressibility;64
9.4.2;3.4.2 Deviatoric Stress;65
9.4.3;3.4.3 Bench-top Experiments: The Three Phases of Creep;65
9.4.4;3.4.4 Isotropic Creep Behavior;67
9.4.5;3.4.5 Controls on Creep Parameter A;77
9.4.6;3.4.6 Recommended Isotropic Creep Relation and Values for A;85
9.4.7;3.4.7 Anisotropic Creep of Ice;91
9.5;3.5 Elastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Ice;101
9.6;Appendix 3.1;101
9.7;Appendix 3.2: Data for Figure 3.16;102
10;Chapter 4. Mass Balance Processes: 1. Overview and Regimes;104
10.1;4.1 Introduction;104
10.1.1;4.1.1 Notes on Terminology;107
10.2;4.2 Surface Mass Balance;109
10.2.1;4.2.1 Surface Accumulation Processes;109
10.2.2;4.2.2 Surface Ablation Processes;112
10.2.3;4.2.3 Annual (Net) Balance and the Seasonal Cycle;113
10.2.4;4.2.4 Annual Glacier Balance and Average Specific Balances;115
10.2.5;4.2.5 Variation of Surface Balance with Altitude;115
10.2.6;4.2.6 Generalized Relation of Surface Balance to Temperature and Precipitation;117
10.2.7;4.2.7 Relation of Glacier-wide Balance to the Area-Altitude Distribution;121
10.3;4.3 Mass Balance Variations of Mountain Glaciers;122
10.3.1;4.3.1 Interannual Fluctuations of Balance;122
10.3.2;4.3.2 Cumulative Balance and Delayed Adjustments;124
10.3.3;4.3.3 Regional Variations of Mass Balance;126
10.4;4.4 Englacial Mass Balance;128
10.4.1;4.4.1 Internal Accumulation;128
10.4.2;4.4.2 Internal Ablation;128
10.5;4.5 Basal Mass Balance;129
10.5.1;4.5.1 Basal Accumulation;129
10.5.2;4.5.2 Basal Ablation;131
10.6;4.6 Mass Loss by Calving;134
10.6.1;4.6.1 The Calving Spectrum;135
10.6.2;4.6.2 Calving from Tidewater Glaciers;136
10.6.3;4.6.3 Calving from Ice Shelves;137
10.6.4;4.6.4 Calving Relations for Ice Sheet Models;140
10.7;4.7 Methods for Determining Glacier Mass Balance;140
10.8;4.8 Mass Balance Regimes of the Ice Sheets;144
10.8.1;4.8.1 Greenland Ice Sheet;144
10.8.2;4.8.2 Antarctic Ice Sheet;147
10.9;Further Reading;149
11;Chapter 5. Mass Balance Processes: 2. Surface Ablation and Energy Budget;150
11.1;5.1 Introduction;150
11.1.1;5.1.1 Radiation;151
11.1.2;5.1.2 Energy Budget of Earth’s Atmosphere and Surface;151
11.2;5.2 Statement of the Surface Energy Budget;153
11.2.1;5.2.1 Driving and Responding Factors in the Energy Budget;154
11.2.2;5.2.2 Melt and Warming Driven by Net Energy Flux;154
11.3;5.3 Components of the Net Energy Flux;155
11.3.1;5.3.1 Downward Shortwave Radiation;156
11.3.2;5.3.2 Reflected Shortwave Radiation;158
11.3.3;5.3.3 Longwave Radiation;161
11.3.4;5.3.4 Field Example, Net Radiation Budget;161
11.3.5;5.3.5 Subsurface Conduction and Radiation;163
11.3.6;5.3.6 Turbulent Fluxes;165
11.4;5.4 Relation of Ablation to Climate;173
11.4.1;5.4.1 Calculating Melt from Energy Budget Measurements;173
11.4.2;5.4.2 Simple Approaches to Modelling Melt;175
11.4.3;5.4.3 Increase of Ablation with Warming;178
11.4.4;5.4.4 Importance of the Frequency of Different Weather Conditions;181
11.4.5;5.4.5 Energy Budget Regimes;182
11.5;Further Reading;186
12;Chapter 6. Glacial Hydrology;188
12.1;6.1 Introduction;188
12.1.1;6.1.1 Permeability of Glacier Ice;189
12.1.2;6.1.2 Effective Pressure;190
12.2;6.2 Features of the Hydrologic System;190
12.2.1;6.2.1 Surface (Supraglacial) Hydrology;191
12.2.2;6.2.2 Englacial Hydrology;192
12.2.3;6.2.3 Subglacial Hydrology;194
12.2.4;6.2.4 Runoff from Glaciers;198
12.3;6.3 The Water System within Temperate Glaciers;207
12.3.1;6.3.1 Direction of Flow;207
12.3.2;6.3.2 Drainage in Conduits;210
12.3.3;6.3.3 Drainage in Linked Cavities;218
12.3.4;6.3.4 Subglacial Drainage on a Soft Bed;222
12.3.5;6.3.5 Summary of Water Systems at the Glacier Bed;225
12.3.6;6.3.6 System Behavior;227
12.4;6.4 Glacial Hydrological Phenomena;229
12.4.1;6.4.1 Jökulhlaups;229
12.4.2;6.4.2 Antarctic Subglacial Lakes;233
12.5;Further Reading;235
13;Chapter 7. Basal Slip;236
13.1;7.1 Introduction;236
13.1.1;7.1.1 Measurements of Basal Velocity;237
13.1.2;7.1.2 Local vs. Global Control of Basal Velocity;239
13.2;7.2 Hard Beds;242
13.2.1;7.2.1 Weertman’s Theory of Sliding;242
13.2.2;7.2.2 Observations at the Glacier Sole;246
13.2.3;7.2.3 Improvements to Weertman’s Analysis;247
13.2.4;7.2.4 Discussion of Assumptions;249
13.2.5;7.2.5 Comparison of Predictions with Observations;250
13.2.6;7.2.6 How Water Changes Sliding Velocity on Hard Beds;251
13.2.7;7.2.7 Sliding of Debris-laden Ice;263
13.2.8;7.2.8 Sliding at Sub-Freezing Temperatures;266
13.2.9;7.2.9 Hard-bed Sliding: Summary and Outlook;267
13.3;7.3 Deformable Beds;268
13.3.1;7.3.1 Key Observations;269
13.3.2;7.3.2 Till Properties and Processes;270
13.3.3;7.3.3 Constitutive Behaviors;277
13.3.4;7.3.4 Slip Rate ub on a Deformable Bed;282
13.3.5;7.3.5 Large-scale Behavior of Soft Beds;286
13.3.6;7.3.6 Continuity of Till;290
13.3.7;7.3.7 Additional Geological Information;292
13.4;7.4 Practical Relations for Basal Slip and Drag;293
13.5;Further Reading;296
14;Chapter 8. The Flow of Ice Masses;298
14.1;8.1 Introduction;298
14.1.1;8.1.1 Ice Flux;299
14.1.2;8.1.2 Balance Velocities;301
14.1.3;8.1.3 Actual Velocities;302
14.1.4;8.1.4 How Surface Velocities Are Measured;306
14.2;8.2 Driving and Resisting Stresses;308
14.2.1;8.2.1 Driving Stress and Basal Shear Stress;308
14.2.2;8.2.2 Additional Resisting Forces and the Force Balance;312
14.2.3;8.2.3 Factors Controlling Resistance and Flow;314
14.2.4;8.2.4 Effective Driving Force of a Vertical Cliff;320
14.3;8.3 Vertical Profiles of Flow;322
14.3.1;8.3.1 Parallel Flow;322
14.3.2;8.3.2 Observed Complications in Shear Profiles;324
14.4;8.4 Fundamental Properties of Extending and Compressing Flows;328
14.4.1;8.4.1 General Concepts;328
14.4.2;8.4.2 Uniform Extension or Compression;330
14.5;8.5 General Governing Relations;332
14.5.1;8.5.1 Local Stress-equilibrium Relations;333
14.5.2;8.5.2 General Solutions for Stress and Velocity;334
14.5.3;8.5.3 Vertically Integrated Force Balance;335
14.5.4;8.5.4 General Mass Conservation Relation (Equation of Continuity);343
14.5.5;8.5.5 Vertically Integrated Continuity Equations;344
14.6;8.6 Effects of Valley Walls and Shear Margins;351
14.6.1;8.6.1 Transverse Velocity Profile Where Basal Resistance Is Small;352
14.6.2;8.6.2 Combined Effects of Side and Basal Resistances;353
14.7;8.7 Variations Along a Flow Line;359
14.7.1;8.7.1 Factors Controlling Longitudinal Strain Rate;359
14.7.2;8.7.2 Local-scale Variation: Longitudinal Stress-gradient Coupling;360
14.7.3;8.7.3 Large-Scale Variation;364
14.8;8.8 Flow at Tidewater Margins;366
14.8.1;8.8.1 Theory;366
14.8.2;8.8.2 Observations: Columbia Glacier;368
14.9;8.9 Ice Sheets: Flow Components;369
14.9.1;8.9.1 Flow at a Divide;370
14.9.2;8.9.2 Ice Streams;373
14.9.3;8.9.3 Ice Shelves;386
14.9.4;8.9.4 Transition Zone Between Grounded and Floating Ice;397
14.9.5;8.9.5 Flow Over Subglacial Lakes;398
14.10;8.10 Surface Profiles of Ice Sheets;398
14.10.1;8.10.1 Profile Equations;398
14.10.2;8.10.2 Other Factors Influencing Profiles;403
14.10.3;8.10.3 Relation Between Ice Area and Volume;408
14.10.4;8.10.4 Travel Times;409
14.10.5;8.10.5 Local-scale Relation of Surface and Bed Topography;410
14.11;Further Reading;411
15;Chapter 9. Temperatures in Ice Masses;412
15.1;9.1 Introduction;412
15.2;9.2 Thermal Parameters of Ice and Snow;413
15.3;9.3 Temperature of Surface Layers;414
15.4;9.4 Temperate Glaciers;418
15.4.1;9.4.1 Ice Temperature;418
15.4.2;9.4.2 Origin and Effect of Water;420
15.4.3;9.4.3 Distribution of Temperate Glaciers;421
15.5;9.5 Steady-state Temperature Distributions;422
15.5.1;9.5.1 Steady-state Vertical Temperature Profile;422
15.6;9.6 Measured Temperature Profiles;426
15.7;9.7 General Equation of Heat Transfer;429
15.7.1;9.7.1 Derivation of Equation;429
15.7.2;9.7.2 Boundary and Basal Conditions;432
15.8;9.8 Temperatures Along a Flow Line;433
15.8.1;9.8.1 Observations;434
15.9;9.9 Time-varying Temperatures;436
15.10;9.10 Temperatures in Ice Shelves;439
16;Chapter 10. Large-Scale Structures;442
16.1;10.1 Introduction;442
16.2;10.2 Sedimentary Layers;443
16.3;10.3 Foliation;443
16.3.1;10.3.1 Elongate Bubble Forms;447
16.3.2;10.3.2 Finite Strain;447
16.4;10.4 Folds;449
16.4.1;10.4.1 Folding in Central Regions of Ice Sheets;451
16.5;10.5 Boudinage;451
16.6;10.6 Faults;453
16.7;10.7 Implications for Ice Core Stratigraphy;454
16.8;10.8 Ogives and Longitudinal Corrugations;456
16.9;10.9 Crevasses;458
16.9.1;10.9.1 Patterns and Conditions for Occurrence;458
16.9.2;10.9.2 Crevasse Depth and Propagation;462
16.9.3;10.9.3 Related Tensional Features;464
16.10;10.10 Structural Assemblages;465
16.11;Further Reading;465
17;Chapter 11. Reaction of Glaciers to Environmental Changes;466
17.1;11.1 Introduction;466
17.2;11.2 Reaction to Changes of Mass Balance: Scales;467
17.2.1;11.2.1 Net Change of Glacier Length;468
17.2.2;11.2.2 Simple Models for Response;469
17.2.3;11.2.3 Simple Models for Different Zones;474
17.3;11.3 Reaction to Changes of Mass Balance: Dynamics;477
17.3.1;11.3.1 Theoretical Framework;477
17.3.2;11.3.2 Ice Thickness Changes;482
17.3.3;11.3.3 Relative Importance of Diffusion and Kinematic Waves;489
17.3.4;11.3.4 Numerical Models of Glacier Variation;490
17.4;11.4 Reactions to Additional Forcings;496
17.4.1;11.4.1 Response of Glaciers to Ice and Bed Changes;496
17.4.2;11.4.2 Factors Influencing the Reaction of an Ice Sheet to the End of an Ice Age;498
17.4.3;11.4.3 Ice Flow Increased by Water Input;503
17.5;11.5 Changes at a Marine Margin;507
17.5.1;11.5.1 Conceptual Framework;508
17.5.2;11.5.2 The Tidewater Glacier Cycle;513
17.5.3;11.5.3 Interactions of Ice Shelves and Inland Ice;516
17.5.4;11.5.4 Forcing by Sea-level Rise;521
17.6;Further Reading;523
18;Chapter 12. Glacier Surges;524
18.1;12.1 Introduction;524
18.2;12.2 Characteristics of Surging Glaciers;526
18.2.1;12.2.1 Spatial Distribution and Relation to Geological Setting;526
18.2.2;12.2.2 Distribution in Time;527
18.2.3;12.2.3 Temperature Characteristics;528
18.2.4;12.2.4 Characteristics of Form and Velocity;529
18.3;12.3 Detailed Observations of Surges;530
18.3.1;12.3.1 Surges of Temperate Glaciers;530
18.3.2;12.3.2 The Role of Water: Variegated Glacier;533
18.3.3;12.3.3 Surges Where the Bed Is Partly Frozen;536
18.3.4;12.3.4 Surges of Polythermal Tidewater Glaciers;539
18.4;12.4 Surge Mechanisms;541
18.4.1;12.4.1 General Evidence Relevant to the Mechanism;541
18.4.2;12.4.2 The Mechanism for Temperate Glaciers;545
18.4.3;12.4.3 Polythermal Glaciers;549
18.5;12.5 Surging of Ice Sheets?;550
18.6;12.6 Ice Avalanches;551
19;Chapter 13. Ice Sheets and the Earth System;554
19.1;13.1 Introduction;554
19.2;13.2 Interaction of Ice Sheets with the Earth System;555
19.2.1;13.2.1 Processes Driving Ice Sheet Change;556
19.2.2;13.2.2 Feedback Processes;561
19.3;13.3 Growth and Decay of Quaternary Ice Sheets;568
19.3.1;13.3.1 Relation to Milankovitch Forcings;570
19.3.2;13.3.2 Climate Forcings at the LGM;574
19.3.3;13.3.3 Onset of Quaternary Cycles;576
19.3.4;13.3.4 Heinrich Events;576
19.4;13.4 Ice Sheet Evolution Models;578
19.4.1;13.4.1 Model Components;578
19.4.2;13.4.2 Model Calibration;582
19.4.3;13.4.3 Simulations of Quaternary Ice Sheets;582
19.5;Further Reading;587
20;Chapter 14. Ice, Sea Level, and Contemporary Climate Change;588
20.1;14.1 Introduction;588
20.1.1;14.1.1 Equivalent Sea Level;589
20.1.2;14.1.2 Recent Climate and Sea-level Change;590
20.2;14.2 Global Warming and Mountain Glaciers;591
20.2.1;14.2.1 History of Glacier Lengths;592
20.2.2;14.2.2 Worldwide Mass Balance of Mountain Glaciers and Small Ice Caps;595
20.2.3;14.2.3 Sea-level Forecasts: Mountain Glaciers and Small Ice Caps;599
20.3;14.3 The Ice Sheets and Global Warming;603
20.3.1;14.3.1 Greenland;603
20.3.2;14.3.2 Antarctica;608
20.3.3;14.3.3 Model Forecasts of Ice Sheet Contributions to Sea-level Change;614
20.3.4;14.3.4 Simple Approaches to Forecasts for the Century Ahead;617
20.4;14.4 Summary;620
20.4.1;14.4.1 Recent Sea-level Rise;620
20.4.2;14.4.2 The Twentieth Century;621
20.4.3;14.4.3 This Century;621
21;Chapter 15. Ice Core Studies;624
21.1;15.1 Introduction;624
21.1.1;15.1.1 Some Essential Terms and Concepts;625
21.1.2;15.1.2 Delta Notation;625
21.2;15.2 Relation Between Depth and Age;627
21.2.1;15.2.1 Theoretical Relations;627
21.2.2;15.2.2 Determination of Ages;635
21.2.3;15.2.3 Difference of Gas and Ice Ages;643
21.3;15.3 Fractionation of Gases in Polar Firn;643
21.4;15.4 Total Air Content;647
21.5;15.5 Stable Isotopes of Ice;649
21.5.1;15.5.1 Conceptual Model;649
21.5.2;15.5.2 Interpretation of Records;657
21.6;15.6 Additional Techniques of Temperature Reconstruction;663
21.6.1;15.6.1 Borehole Temperatures;663
21.6.2;15.6.2 Melt Layers;664
21.6.3;15.6.3 Thermal and Gravitational Fractionation of Gases;665
21.7;15.7 Estimation of Past Accumulation Rates;665
21.8;15.8 Greenhouse Gas Records;667
21.8.1;15.8.1 Histories of Atmospheric Concentration;667
21.8.2;15.8.2 Isotopic Compositions of Greenhouse Gases;672
21.9;15.9 Gas Indicators of Global Parameters;672
21.9.1;15.9.1 Global Mean Ocean Temperature;672
21.9.2;15.9.2 Global Biological Productivity;673
21.10;15.10 Particulate and Soluble Impurities;673
21.10.1;15.10.1 Electrical Conductivity Measurement (ECM);675
21.10.2;15.10.2 Primary Aerosols;675
21.10.3;15.10.3 Secondary Aerosols;677
21.11;15.11 Examples of Multiparameter Records from Ice Sheets;680
21.11.1;15.11.1 Deglacial Climate Change;680
21.11.2;15.11.2 A Long Record of Climate Cycling;680
21.12;15.12 Low-latitude Ice Cores;683
21.13;15.13 Surface Exposures in Ablation Zones;685
21.14;Further Reading;687
22;Appendix A: A Primer on Stress and Strain;688
23;Index;696
24;Color Plates;714