Houck Forensic Chemistry

1. Auflage 2015
ISBN: 978-0-12-800624-5
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 492 Seiten

Reihe: Advanced Forensic Science Series

Forensic Chemistry is the first publication to provide coordinated expert content from world-renowned leading authorities in forensic chemistry. Covering the range of forensic chemistry, this volume in the Advanced Forensic Science Series provides up-to-date scientific learning on drugs, fire debris, explosives, instrumental methods, interpretation, and more. Technical information, written with the degreed professional in mind, brings established methods together with newer approaches to build a comprehensive knowledge base for the student and practitioner alike. Like each volume in the Advanced Forensic Science Series, review and discussion questions allow the text to be used in classrooms, training programs, and numerous other applications. Sections on fundamentals of forensic science, history, safety, and professional issues provide context and consistency in support of the forensic enterprise. Forensic Chemistry sets a new standard for reference and learning texts in modern forensic science. - Advanced articles written by international forensic chemistry experts - Covers the range of forensic chemistry, including methods and interpretation - Includes entries on history, safety, and professional issues - Useful as a professional reference, advanced textbook, or training review

Autoren/Hrsg.

Houck, Max M.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover
;1
2;FORENSIC CHEMISTRY: Advanced Forensic Science Series;4
3;Copyright;5
4;CONTENTS;6
5;EDITOR: BIOGRAPHY;12
6;LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS;14
7;FOREWORD;18
7.1;Reference;19
8;PREFACE;20
9;Section 1. Introduction;22
9.1;Principles of Forensic Science;22
9.1.1;What Is Forensic Science?;23
9.1.2;The Trace as the Basic Unit of Forensic Science;23
9.1.3;Two Native Principles;24
9.1.4;Nonnative Principles;25
9.1.5;Further Reading;25
9.1.6;Relevant Websites;26
9.2;Forensic Classification of Evidence;28
9.2.1;Introduction;28
9.2.2;Methods of Classification;28
9.2.2.1;Set Theory;28
9.2.2.2;Taxonomy;28
9.2.2.3;Manufacturing;29
9.2.2.4;Forensic Approaches to Classification;29
9.2.3;Class Level Information;29
9.2.4;Uniqueness and Individualization;30
9.2.5;Relationships and Context;30
9.2.6;Further Reading;31
9.3;Interpretation/The Comparative Method;32
9.3.1;Introduction;32
9.3.2;Analogy and Comparison within a Forensic Process;34
9.3.3;The Comparative Method within Forensic Science;35
9.3.4;Further Reading;35
9.4;The Forensic Analysis of Chemical Unknowns;38
9.4.1;Introduction;38
9.4.2;Common Submissions;38
9.4.3;Safety Considerations and Presumptive Testing;39
9.4.4;Contextual Information;39
9.4.5;Analytical Approach;39
9.4.5.1;Solids;39
9.4.5.2;Liquids;41
9.4.5.3;Gases;42
9.4.6;Interpretation of Results;42
9.4.7;Further Reading;43
9.4.8;Relevant Websites;43
9.5;Microchemistry;44
9.5.1;Introduction;44
9.5.2;Types of Microchemical Reactions;44
9.5.2.1;Spot Tests;44
9.5.2.2;Crystal Tests;47
9.5.2.3;Solubility Tests;48
9.5.3;Microchemical Analysis;48
9.5.4;Further Reading;49
9.5.5;Relevant Websites;49
10;Key Terms;49
11;Review Questions;49
12;Discussion Questions;50
13;Additional Reading;50
14;Section 2. Methods;52
14.1;Capillary Electrophoresis: Basic Principles;52
14.1.1;Introduction;53
14.1.2;Fundamentals of CE;53
14.1.3;Electrophoretic Mobilities;53
14.1.3.1;Electroosmosis and the Electroosmotic Flow;53
14.1.3.2;EOF Control;55
14.1.4;Background Electrolytes;55
14.1.4.1;Maximizing Efficiency;56
14.1.5;Modes of Separation in Electrophoresis;57
14.1.5.1;Zone Electrophoresis;57
14.1.5.2;Electrophoretic Chromatography;57
14.1.5.3;Sieving Electrophoresis;58
14.1.5.4;Electrochromatography;58
14.1.5.5;Isoelectric Focusing;58
14.1.5.6;Isotachophoresis;58
14.1.6;Instrumentation and Sample Handling;58
14.1.6.1;Sample Concentration;59
14.1.6.2;Detection Methods;60
14.1.6.2.1;Spectrophotometric methods;60
14.1.6.2.2;Mass spectrophotometric detection;61
14.1.6.2.3;Electrochemical detection;61
14.1.7;Future Directions;61
14.1.8;Further Reading;61
14.1.9;Relevant Websites;61
14.2;Capillary Electrophoresis in Forensic Biology;62
14.2.1;Introduction;62
14.2.2;CE Methodology;62
14.2.3;Injection;62
14.2.4;Separation;63
14.2.5;Detection;64
14.2.6;Interpretation of Electropherograms;64
14.2.7;Recent Developments in CE;65
14.2.8;CE Typing Methodologies Used by Forensic Biologists;65
14.2.8.1;STR Typing;65
14.2.8.2;Mitochondria Typing for Individualization;66
14.2.8.3;SNP Typing for Individualization;66
14.2.8.4;SNP Typing for Biological Ancestry and Physical Identification Typing;66
14.2.8.5;Other Uses;67
14.2.9;The Future of CE in Forensic Biology;67
14.2.10;Conclusion;68
14.2.11;Further Reading;68
14.2.12;Relevant Websites;68
14.3;Capillary Electrophoresis in Forensic Chemistry;70
14.3.1;Introduction;70
14.3.2;Applications;70
14.3.2.1;Illicit Drug Analysis;70
14.3.2.2;Toxicology;70
14.3.2.3;Forensic Medicine;72
14.3.2.4;Inks;72
14.3.2.5;Explosives and Gunshot Residues;72
14.3.2.6;Miniaturization;74
14.3.3;Further Reading;75
14.4;Chromatography: Basic Principles;76
14.4.1;Introduction;76
14.4.2;Classification of Chromatographic Techniques;77
14.4.3;Chromatographic Distribution Equilibria;78
14.4.4;Band Broadening in Chromatography;79
14.4.5;Additional Comments on Band Broadening;81
14.4.6;Optimization of Chromatographic Performance;81
14.4.7;Further Reading;81
14.4.8;Relevant Websites;81
14.5;Gas Chromatography;82
14.5.1;Introduction;82
14.5.2;GC Columns;82
14.5.3;Gas Pressure and Flow Control;84
14.5.4;Oven Temperature;84
14.5.5;Sample Introduction;84
14.5.6;Split/Splitless Injection;85
14.5.7;On-Column Injection;85
14.5.8;Solid Injection;85
14.5.9;Programmed Temperature Volatilization Injection;85
14.5.10;Headspace Introduction;86
14.5.11;Pyrolysis GC;86
14.5.12;Simple Injection–Dual Detection;86
14.5.13;Detectors;86
14.5.14;Flame Ionization Detector;87
14.5.15;Nitrogen–Phosphorus Detector or Alkali FID;87
14.5.16;Electron Capture Detector;87
14.5.17;Mass Selective Detector;87
14.5.18;Further Reading;88
14.6;Liquid and Thin-Layer Chromatography;90
14.6.1;Introduction;90
14.6.2;Column (or Liquid–Solid) Chromatography;90
14.6.3;HPLC and Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography;90
14.6.4;Thin-Layer Chromatography;92
14.6.5;Acknowledgments;93
14.6.6;Further Reading;93
14.6.7;Relevant Websites;93
14.7;Mass Spectrometry;94
14.7.1;Introduction;94
14.7.2;Instrumentation;94
14.7.3;Sample Introduction;94
14.7.4;Ion Source;95
14.7.4.1;Electron Ionization;95
14.7.4.2;Chemical Ionization;95
14.7.4.3;Electrospray Ionization;96
14.7.4.4;Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization;96
14.7.5;Mass Analyzer;96
14.7.5.1;Sector Mass Analyzer;96
14.7.5.2;Time-of-Flight Mass Analyzer;96
14.7.5.3;Quadrupole Mass Analyzer;97
14.7.5.4;Ion-Trap Mass Analyzer;97
14.7.6;Tandem Mass Spectrometry;97
14.7.7;Ion Detector;97
14.7.8;Data Interpretation;97
14.7.9;Forensic Applications of MS;98
14.7.10;Further Reading;99
14.7.11;Relevant Websites;99
14.8;Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry;100
14.8.1;Introduction;100
14.8.2;Ionization Techniques;100
14.8.3;Sample Preparation and Injection Techniques;101
14.8.4;Matrix Effects;102
14.8.5;Overview of State-of-the-Art LC–MS Instrumentation;102
14.8.6;Application of LC–MS to Forensic Sciences;105
14.8.7;Further Reading;105
14.8.8;Relevant Websites;106
14.9;Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry;108
14.9.1;Introduction;108
14.9.2;Multiplied Powers;109
14.9.3;Different Ways of Looking at Data;109
14.9.4;Requirements;112
14.9.5;Instrumentation;113
14.9.6;Forensic Applications;113
14.9.7;Further Reading;114
14.9.8;Relevant Websites;114
14.10;Spectroscopy: Basic Principles;116
14.10.1;Introduction;116
14.10.2;Electromagnetic Radiation and Light;116
14.10.3;Matter;117
14.10.4;Interaction between Radiation and Matter;117
14.10.4.1;Absorption;117
14.10.4.2;Emission;118
14.10.4.3;Scatter;118
14.10.5;Instrumentation and Techniques;118
14.10.5.1;Spectrometers;118
14.10.5.2;Techniques;119
14.10.5.2.1;Molecular ultraviolet and visible absorbance spectroscopy;119
14.10.5.2.2;Molecular luminescence spectroscopy;119
14.10.5.2.3;Atomic absorption spectroscopy and atomic emission spectroscopy;120
14.10.5.2.4;Infrared spectroscopy;120
14.10.5.2.5;Raman spectroscopy;120
14.10.5.2.6;X-Ray fluorescence spectroscopy;120
14.10.5.2.7;Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy;120
14.10.6;Acknowledgments;120
14.10.7;Further Reading;121
14.11;Spectroscopic Techniques;122
14.11.1;Introduction;122
14.11.2;Identification of Substances;122
14.11.2.1;Infrared Spectroscopy;122
14.11.2.2;Raman Spectroscopy;124
14.11.2.3;X-Ray Fluorescence and Scanning Electron Microscopy Energy-Dispersive X-Ray;124
14.11.2.4;Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy;125
14.11.3;Quantification of Substances;126
14.11.3.1;Ultraviolet and Visible Spectroscopy;126
14.11.3.2;AAS and Atomic Emission Spectroscopy;127
14.11.4;Related Techniques;128
14.11.4.1;Molecular Fluorescence and Chemiluminescence;128
14.11.4.2;Synchrotron Techniques;128
14.11.5;Further Reading;129
14.12;Analytical Light Microscopy;130
14.12.1;Introduction;130
14.12.2;Microscopes Used in Analysis in the Forensic Sciences;130
14.12.2.1;Stereomicroscope;130
14.12.2.2;Compound Microscope;130
14.12.2.3;Brightfield;131
14.12.2.4;Comparison;131
14.12.2.5;Polarized Light;131
14.12.2.6;Hot Stage;131
14.12.2.7;Phase Contrast;131
14.12.2.8;Fluorescence;132
14.12.3;Further Reading;132
14.13;Microscopy (Electron);134
14.13.1;Introduction;134
14.13.2;Additional Instrumentation for Electron Microscope Applications;136
14.13.3;Forensic Applications of SEM;137
14.13.4;Further Reading;137
14.14;Presumptive Chemical Tests;138
14.14.1;Introduction;138
14.14.2;Chemical Tests on Drug Evidence;139
14.14.2.1;Color Tests;139
14.14.2.2;Microcrystalline Tests;139
14.14.3;Chemical Tests on Explosives Evidence;140
14.14.4;Chemical Tests on Biological Specimens;141
14.14.5;Further Reading;142
14.15;Nonchromatographic Separation Techniques;144
14.15.1;Introduction;144
14.15.2;Physical Separations;144
14.15.3;Volatile Materials;144
14.15.4;Chemical Separations;145
14.15.4.1;Solvent Extraction;145
14.15.4.2;Solid-Phase Extraction;146
14.15.4.3;Purification via Chemical Reaction;147
14.15.4.4;Separation of Enantiomers;148
14.15.4.5;Microcrystalline Tests;149
14.15.4.6;Ion Mobility Spectrometry;149
14.15.5;Acknowledgment;149
14.15.6;Further Reading;149
15;Key Terms;149
16;Review Questions;150
17;Discussion Questions;150
18;Additional Readings;150
19;Section 3. Drugs;152
19.1;Classification;152
19.1.1;Introduction;152
19.1.2;Natural Drugs;152
19.1.2.1;Cannabis;152
19.1.2.1.1;Fresh plant material;153
19.1.2.1.2;Dried plant material;153
19.1.2.1.3;Resin;153
19.1.2.1.4;Hash oil;153
19.1.2.2;Mushrooms and Cacti;154
19.1.3;Semisynthetic Drugs;154
19.1.3.1;Opiates;154
19.1.3.2;Cocaine;154
19.1.3.3;Tryptamines;154
19.1.4;Synthetic Drugs;155
19.1.4.1;Amphetamine and Amphetamine-Type Stimulants;155
19.1.4.1.1;Ecstasy group;155
19.1.4.1.2;Amphetamine group;156
19.1.4.2;Barbiturates;156
19.1.4.3;Methaqualone and Mecloqualone;156
19.1.4.4;Benzodiazepines;157
19.1.4.5;Phencyclidine and Analogues;158
19.1.4.6;.-Hydroxybutyric Acid;158
19.1.4.7;“Legal Highs”;158
19.1.5;Further Reading;158
19.2;Analysis of Controlled Substances;160
19.2.1;Introduction;160
19.2.2;Analytical Strategy;160
19.2.3;Physical Examination;160
19.2.4;Presumptive Tests;160
19.2.5;Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy;161
19.2.6;Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy;161
19.2.7;Chromatography;161
19.2.8;Thin-Layer Chromatography;162
19.2.9;High-Performance Liquid Chromatography;162
19.2.10;Gas Chromatography;162
19.2.11;Quantitative Chromatographic Analysis;162
19.2.12;Mass Spectrometry;163
19.2.13;Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry;163
19.2.14;Conclusions;164
19.2.15;Further Reading;164
19.3;Volatile Substances and Inhalants;166
19.3.1;Diagnosis of VSA;170
19.3.1.1;Laboratory Analysis;170
19.3.1.2;Analytical Methods;171
19.3.1.3;Gas Chromatography;171
19.3.1.4;Interpretation of Analytical Results;171
19.3.2;Further Reading;180
19.3.3;Relevant Websites;180
19.4;Herbal Psychoactive Substances;182
19.4.1;Introduction;182
19.4.2;Traditional Drugs of Abuse of Herbal Origin;182
19.4.3;Emerging and Popular Herbal Drugs of Abuse;183
19.4.4;Analytical Methods;186
19.4.5;Summary and Conclusion;186
19.4.6;Further Reading;186
19.4.7;Relevant Website;186
19.5;Designer Drugs;188
19.5.1;Introduction;188
19.5.2;Designer Drugs of Various Structural Types;188
19.5.2.1;AP-Type Designer Drugs;188
19.5.2.2;2,5-Dimethoxy Amphetamine Designer Drugs;191
19.5.2.3;2,5-Phenethylamine Designer Drugs (2C Drugs);192
19.5.2.4;ß-Keto Amphetamine Designer Drugs;192
19.5.2.5;Phencyclidine-Derived Designer Drugs;192
19.5.2.6;Piperazine-Derived Designer Drugs;192
19.5.2.7;Pyrrolidinophenone-Derived Designer Drugs;192
19.5.2.8;Fentanyl-Derived Designer Drugs;193
19.5.2.9;Piperidine Analogs;193
19.5.2.10;Tryptamine-Derived Designer Drugs;193
19.5.2.11;Herbal Drug Kratom;193
19.5.2.12;Synthetic Cannabinoids in Spice;193
19.5.2.13;Designer Steroids;193
19.5.2.14;Other Designer Drugs;194
19.5.3;Forensic Relevance;194
19.5.3.1;Forensic Chemistry;194
19.5.3.2;Forensic Toxicology;194
19.5.3.3;Clinical Intoxication;195
19.5.3.4;Legislation;195
19.5.4;Conclusions;195
19.5.5;Further Reading;195
19.5.6;Relevant Websites;196
19.6;Clandestine Laboratories;198
19.6.1;Introduction;198
19.6.2;Scope of the Problem;198
19.6.3;Recognition;199
19.6.3.1;Manufacturing Processes;199
19.6.3.2;Needs Triangle;201
19.6.3.2.1;Equipment;201
19.6.3.2.2;Reflux;201
19.6.3.2.3;Distillation;202
19.6.3.2.4;Hydrogenation;202
19.6.3.2.5;Bucket chemistry;202
19.6.3.2.6;Extractions;202
19.6.3.2.7;Chemical needs;203
19.6.3.2.8;Knowledge needs;204
19.6.4;Forensic Components;204
19.6.4.1;The Chemist;204
19.6.4.2;Crime Scene Support;204
19.6.4.3;Laboratory Analysis;205
19.6.4.4;Expert Opinions;205
19.6.5;Further Reading;205
19.7;Clandestine Explosive Laboratories;206
19.7.1;Introduction;206
19.7.2;Recognition of Clandestine Explosive Laboratories;207
19.7.3;Objectives of Clandestine Explosive Laboratory Examination;207
19.7.4;The Examination of Clandestine Explosive Laboratories;207
19.7.4.1;Safety at a Clandestine Explosives Laboratory;208
19.7.4.2;Contamination;208
19.7.4.3;Sampling;209
19.7.4.4;On-Site Analysis;210
19.7.4.5;Other Evidence Types;211
19.7.5;Case Study: The Explosions in London on July 7, 2005;212
19.7.6;Conclusions;213
19.7.7;Further Reading;213
19.7.8;Relevant Website;213
19.8;Validation of Twelve Chemical Spot Tests for the Detection of Drugs of Abuse;214
19.8.1;Introduction;214
19.8.2;Materials and Methods;214
19.8.3;Results and Discussion;218
19.8.4;Conclusions;220
19.8.5;Acknowledgments;220
19.8.6;Further Reading;220
20;Key Terms;221
21;Review Questions;221
22;Discussion Questions;221
23;Additional Readings;221
24;Section 4. Fire and Arson;222
24.1;Chemistry of Fire;222
24.1.1;Introduction;223
24.1.2;Conditions for a Fire;223
24.1.3;Fire as a Chemical Reaction;223
24.1.4;Phase Change and Pyrolysis;225
24.1.5;Heat Source and Transfer;226
24.1.6;Flammability Limits, Flash Point, and Fire Point;226
24.1.7;Ignition;227
24.1.8;Conclusion;227
24.1.9;Further Reading;227
24.2;Physics/Thermodynamics;228
24.2.1;Introduction and Overview;228
24.2.2;Physical Thermodynamics: The Relevant Background;228
24.2.3;The Role of Thermodynamics in Fire Investigation;228
24.2.4;Fire: Ignition and Propagation;229
24.2.5;Thermodynamic Classification of Ignition Sources;230
24.2.6;Smoldering;231
24.2.7;Flames;232
24.2.8;Conclusion;232
24.2.9;Further Reading;232
24.3;Thermal Degradation;234
24.3.1;Introduction;234
24.3.2;Thermal Degradation Effects;234
24.3.3;Summary;237
24.3.4;Further Reading;237
24.4;Types of Fires;238
24.4.1;Theory of Fire;238
24.4.2;Physical States of Fuel;239
24.4.3;The Fire Triangle;239
24.4.4;Further Reading;240
24.5;Evidence Collection at Fire Scenes;242
24.5.1;Introduction and Overview;242
24.5.2;Sample Selection, and Documentation;242
24.5.3;Comparison Samples;243
24.5.4;Packaging Options;244
24.5.5;Clothing and Shoes;244
24.5.6;Liquids for Comparison;244
24.5.7;Evidence Collection for Other Types of Testing;244
24.5.8;Further Reading;246
24.5.9;Relevant Website;246
24.6;Fire Scene Inspection Methodology;248
24.6.1;Introduction and Overview;248
24.6.2;First Assumptions;248
24.6.3;Planning the Investigation;248
24.6.4;Initial Evaluation: Can This Inspection Be Conducted Safely?;248
24.6.5;Documentation;249
24.6.6;Reconstruction;249
24.6.7;Inventory;249
24.6.8;Avoiding Spoliation;250
24.6.9;Origin Determination;250
24.6.10;Cause Determination;251
24.6.11;Further Reading;251
24.6.12;Relevant Websites;251
24.7;Fire Patterns and Their Interpretation;252
24.7.1;Introduction and Overview;252
24.7.2;Plume-Generated Patterns;252
24.7.3;Confinement Patterns;255
24.7.4;Movement Patterns;256
24.7.5;Irregular Patterns;256
24.7.6;Spalling;258
24.7.7;Electrical Damage;258
24.7.8;Clean Burn;259
24.7.9;Intensity Patterns;259
24.7.10;Ventilation-Generated Fire Patterns;259
24.7.11;Further Reading;262
24.7.12;Relevant Websites;262
24.8;Analysis of Fire Debris;264
24.8.1;Introduction;264
24.8.2;Evidence Collection: Sampling Containers;264
24.8.3;Preliminary Examination of Fire-Debris Samples;265
24.8.4;Extraction and Sampling Techniques;265
24.8.5;Analysis;267
24.8.6;Further Reading;269
24.9;Interpretation of Fire-Debris Analysis;270
24.9.1;Introduction;270
24.9.2;Classification;270
24.9.3;Interpretation of Neat Liquids;278
24.9.4;Interpretation of ILRs;280
24.9.5;Systematic Approach;281
24.9.6;Significance of Findings;281
24.9.7;Further Reading;281
24.10;Forensic Chemical Engineering Investigation and Analysis;284
24.10.1;Introduction;284
24.10.2;Fires and Explosions;284
24.10.3;Pollution and Toxic Substances;286
24.10.4;Unrecognized Hazards and Unexpected Consequences;287
24.10.5;Summary;288
24.10.6;Further Reading;289
24.10.7;Relevant Websites;289
25;Key Terms;289
26;Review Questions;289
27;Discussion Questions;290
28;Additional Readings;290
29;Section 5. Explosives;292
29.1;Explosions;292
29.1.1;Explosives Effects;292
29.1.2;Types of Explosions;293
29.1.3;Primary Effects of an Explosion;293
29.1.4;Results of Explosions;294
29.1.5;Further Reading;296
29.2;Commercial;298
29.2.1;Introduction;298
29.2.2;Performance Parameters;298
29.2.3;NG-Containing Explosives;299
29.2.4;AN-Based Explosives;300
29.2.5;Detonating Cords;302
29.2.6;Boosters (Primers);303
29.2.7;Detonators;303
29.2.8;Further Reading;304
29.3;Military;306
29.3.1;Introduction;306
29.3.2;High Explosives;306
29.3.3;Propellants;309
29.3.4;Further Reading;311
29.4;Improvised Explosive Devices;312
29.4.1;Introduction;312
29.4.2;Elements of IEDs;312
29.4.3;Effects of IEDs;314
29.4.4;Detection and Countermeasures to IEDs;314
29.4.5;Forensic Science and IEDs;314
29.4.6;The Courts;316
29.4.7;Further Reading;316
29.5;Improvised Explosives;318
29.5.1;Introduction;318
29.5.2;History;319
29.5.3;Classifications;320
29.5.4;Mixtures;320
29.5.5;Synthetics;321
29.5.6;Further Reading;323
29.6;Explosives: Analysis;324
29.6.1;Caution!;324
29.6.2;Introduction;324
29.6.3;Methods and Procedures;325
29.6.4;Postexplosion and Trace Analysis of Explosives;338
29.6.5;Criteria of Identification;342
29.6.6;Interpretation;343
29.6.7;Further Reading;344
30;Key Terms;344
31;Review Questions;344
32;Discussion Questions;345
33;Additional Readings;345
34;Section 6. Interpretation;346
34.1;The Frequentist Approach to Forensic Evidence Interpretation;346
34.1.1;Example;347
34.1.2;Range Tests;347
34.1.3;Formal Hypothesis Tests;348
34.1.4;Significance Levels and Small or Big Values;349
34.1.5;The Two-Sample t-Test;349
34.1.6;Confidence Intervals;350
34.1.7;Controversies and Issues;351
34.1.8;Further Reading;351
34.2;Statistical Interpretation of Evidence: Bayesian Analysis;352
34.2.1;Introduction;352
34.2.2;Bayes' Rule;352
34.2.3;The Value of Evidence;353
34.2.4;Categorical Data and Discrete Hypotheses;353
34.2.5;Continuous Data and Discrete Hypotheses;355
34.2.6;Principles of Evidence Evaluation;356
34.2.7;Interpretation;356
34.2.8;Pitfalls of Intuition;356
34.2.9;Further Reading;357
34.3;Chemometrics;358
34.3.1;Introduction;358
34.3.2;Preprocessing Techniques;358
34.3.3;Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering;359
34.3.4;Principal Component Analysis;360
34.3.5;Discriminant Analysis;361
34.3.6;Conclusions;363
34.3.7;Further Reading;363
34.3.8;Relevant Websites;363
35;Key Terms;363
36;Review Questions;364
37;Discussion Questions;364
38;Additional Readings;364
39;Section 7. Other Methods;366
39.1;Ink Analysis;366
39.1.1;Introduction;366
39.1.2;Composition of Major Types of Writing Inks;367
39.1.2.1;Carbon (India) Ink;367
39.1.2.2;Fountain Pen Inks;367
39.1.2.3;Ballpoint Inks;367
39.1.2.4;Rolling Ball Marker Inks;367
39.1.2.5;Fiber- or Porous-Tip Pen Inks;367
39.1.2.6;Gel Pen Inks;368
39.1.3;Ink Comparisons and Identifications;368
39.1.4;Dating of Inks;368
39.1.4.1;First Date of Production Method;368
39.1.4.2;Ink Tag Method;368
39.1.4.3;Relative Age Comparison Methods;368
39.1.5;Accelerated Aging;369
39.1.5.1;Time-Dependent Degradation of Ink Dyes;369
39.1.6;Further Reading;370
39.2;Chemistry of Print Residue;372
39.2.1;Introduction;372
39.2.2;Sources of Fingerprint Residue;373
39.2.3;Factors Affecting Fingerprint Composition;375
39.2.3.1;Substrate;375
39.2.3.2;Deposition;375
39.2.3.3;Donor;375
39.2.3.4;Contaminants;375
39.2.3.5;Ambient Conditions and Time;376
39.2.4;Future Directions and Conclusions;376
39.2.5;Further Reading;377
39.3;Field-Deployable Devices;378
39.3.1;Introduction;378
39.3.2;Hazardous Material Identification;378
39.3.3;Explosives Detection and Identification;378
39.3.4;Clandestine Laboratories;378
39.3.5;The Challenge of “In-Field” Monitoring, Detection, and Identification;379
39.3.6;Principles of Operation of Field-Deployable Devices;379
39.3.7;Spectroscopic Techniques;379
39.3.7.1;IR Detectors;379
39.3.7.1.1;Principles of the technique;379
39.3.7.1.2;Strengths and weaknesses;379
39.3.7.2;Raman Spectroscopy;380
39.3.7.2.1;Principles of the technique;380
39.3.7.2.2;Strengths and weaknesses;380
39.3.8;Flame Ionization Techniques;380
39.3.8.1;Flame Ionization Detection;380
39.3.8.1.1;Principles of the technique;380
39.3.8.1.2;Strengths and weaknesses;380
39.3.8.2;Flame Photometric Detection;380
39.3.8.2.1;Principles of the technique;380
39.3.8.2.2;Strengths and weaknesses;380
39.3.9;Photoionization Detection;380
39.3.9.1;Principles of the Technique;380
39.3.9.2;Strengths and Weaknesses;381
39.3.10;Ion Mobility Spectroscopy;381
39.3.10.1;Principles of the Technique;381
39.3.10.2;Strengths and Weaknesses;381
39.3.11;MS and Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry;381
39.3.11.1;Principles of the Technique;381
39.3.11.2;Strengths and Weaknesses;381
39.3.12;Other Detection Technologies;381
39.3.12.1;Surface Acoustic Wave Detection;381
39.3.12.1.1;Principles of the technique;381
39.3.12.1.2;Strengths and weaknesses;381
39.3.13;Discussion;382
39.3.14;Further Reading;382
39.4;Overview, Analysis, and Interpretation of Environmental Forensic Evidence;384
39.4.1;Introduction;384
39.4.2;Dating the Release of Contaminants from Underground Storage Tanks;384
39.4.3;Additives for Age Dating TCE;385
39.4.3.1;Stabilizers Used for Age Dating a TCE Release;385
39.4.3.2;Presence of Impurities in TCE for Age Dating;386
39.4.4;Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis for Source Identification of TCE;387
39.4.5;Surrogate Analysis;388
39.4.6;Conclusion;389
39.4.7;Further Reading;389
39.5;Decomposition Chemistry: Overview, Analysis, and Interpretation;390
39.5.1;Introduction;390
39.5.2;Decomposition Stages;390
39.5.3;Lipid Degradation;391
39.5.4;Protein Degradation;391
39.5.5;Carbohydrate Degradation;392
39.5.6;Volatile Organic Compounds;392
39.5.7;Preservation of Soft Tissue;392
39.5.8;Vitreous Humor;392
39.5.9;Bone Degradation;392
39.5.10;Analytical Methods;393
39.5.11;Further Reading;393
40;Key Terms;394
41;Review Questions;394
42;Discussion Questions;394
43;Additional Readings;395
44;Section 8. Professional Issues;396
44.1;Crime Scene to Court;396
44.1.1;Introduction;396
44.1.2;Task;397
44.1.3;Models;397
44.1.4;Forensic Strategies;397
44.1.5;Integrated Case Management;399
44.1.6;Summary;400
44.1.7;Further Reading;400
44.2;Forensic Laboratory Reports;402
44.2.1;Contents of a Report—A “Science” Standard;402
44.2.2;Contents of Report: Legal Standards;403
44.2.3;Reports: Standalone Evidence or Support for a Testifying Expert;403
44.2.4;Ethical Considerations and Forensic Reports;404
44.2.5;Conclusion;404
44.2.6;Further Reading;404
44.2.7;Relevant Websites;404
44.3;Health and Safety;406
44.3.1;Occupational Health and Safety Policy;406
44.3.1.1;Risk Assessments;406
44.3.1.2;Dynamic Risk Management;407
44.3.1.3;Hierarchy of Control Measures;407
44.3.1.3.1;Examples;407
44.3.2;Specific Laboratory Hazards;407
44.3.2.1;Chemicals;407
44.3.2.2;Sharps;408
44.3.2.3;Biological Material;408
44.3.2.4;Firearms;408
44.3.2.5;Computer Forensics Laboratory;408
44.3.2.6;Electrical/Machinery;409
44.3.2.7;Fume Cupboards;409
44.3.2.8;Robotics;409
44.3.2.9;X-rays;409
44.3.2.10;Lasers;409
44.3.2.11;High-Intensity Light Sources;409
44.3.2.12;Manual Handling;410
44.3.2.13;General Laboratory Management;410
44.3.2.14;Handling of Exhibits in Court;410
44.3.3;Hazards in the Field;410
44.3.3.1;Confined Spaces;410
44.3.3.2;Chemical Biological and Radiological and Nuclear Incidents;410
44.3.3.3;Clan Labs;411
44.3.3.4;Potential Hazards during an Overseas Deployment;411
44.3.3.5;Work-Related Stress;411
44.3.4;Further Reading;411
44.3.5;Relevant Websites;412
44.4;Measurement Uncertainty;414
44.4.1;Measurement;414
44.4.2;Measurement to Meaning;415
44.4.2.1;Measurement Error and Error Analysis;415
44.4.2.2;The Meaning of Meaning;417
44.4.3;Measurement Uncertainty;417
44.4.3.1;The New Paradigm;417
44.4.3.2;Measurement Uncertainty: A Forensic Example;420
44.4.3.3;Determining Measurement Uncertainty;420
44.4.4;Meaning Requires Uncertainty;423
44.4.5;Further Reading;423
45;Key Terms;424
46;Review Questions;424
47;Discussion Questions;424
48;Additional Readings;424
49;INDEX;426

Leseproben

Principles of Forensic Science
F. Crispino     Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada M.M. Houck     Consolidated Forensic Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA Abstract
Forensic science is grounded on two native principles (those of Locard and Kirk) and the admission of a few other non-native ones. This framework is one definition of a paradigm for the discipline to be considered a basic science on its own merits. The science explores the relationships in legal and police matters through the analysis of traces of illegal or criminal activities. In this way, forensic science is seen as a historical science, interpreting evidence in context with its circumstances and originating processes (at source and activity levels). Keywords
Epistemology; Forensic; Kirk; Locard; Paradigm; Science Glossary
Abduction    Syllogism in which one premise is certain and the other one is only probable, generally presented as the best explanation to the former. Hence, abduction is a type of reasoning in which we know the law and the effect, and we attempt to infer the cause. Deduction    Process of reasoning that moves from the general to the specific and in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated premises. Hence, deduction is a type of reasoning in which, knowing the cause and the law, we infer the effect. Forensic intelligence    Understanding of how traces can be collected from the scene, processed, and interpreted within a holistic, intelligence-led policing strategy. Heuristic    Process of reasoning by rules that are only loosely defined, generally by trial and error. Holistic    Emphasizing the importance of the whole and the interdependence of its parts. Induction    Process of deriving general principles from particular facts or instances (i.e., of reasoning that moves from the specific to the general). Hence, induction is a type of reasoning in which, knowing the cause and the effect (or a series of causes and effects), we attempt to infer the law by which the effects follow the cause. Linkage blindness    Organizational or investigative failure to recognize a common pattern shared on different cases. Science    The intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment. It is also defined as a systematically organized body of knowledge on a particular subject. Given that it identifies and collects objects at crime scenes and then treats them as evidence, forensic science could appear at first glance to be only a pragmatic set of various disciplines, with practitioners adapting and developing tools and technologies to help the triers of fact (juries or judges) interpret information gained from the people, places, and things involved in a crime. The view could be—and has been—held that forensic science has no philosophic or fundamental unity and is merely the application of knowledge generated by other sciences. Indeed, many working forensic scientists regard themselves mainly as chemists, biologists, scientists, or technicians and rarely as practitioners of a homogeneous body of knowledge with common fundamental principles. Even the 2009 National Academy of Sciences National Research Council Report failed to recognize such a concept, certainly blurred by a semantic gap in the terminology itself of field practitioners, who confuse words such as “forensic science(s),” “criminalistic(s),” “criminology,” “technical police,” “scientific police,” and so on and generally restrict the scientific debate on analytical techniques and methods. An independent definition of forensic science, apart from its legal aspects, would support its scientific status and return the expert to his domain as scientist and interpreter of his analyses and results to assist the lay person. What Is Forensic Science?
In its broadest sense, forensic science describes the utility of the sciences as they pertain to legal matters, to include many disciplines, such as chemistry, biology, pathology, anthropology, toxicology, and engineering among others. (“Forensic” comes from the Latin root forum, the central place of the city where disputes and debates were made public to be solved, hence, defining the law of the city. Forensic generally means “of or applied to the law.”) The word “criminalistics” was adopted to describe the discipline directed toward the “recognition, identification, individualization, and evaluation of physical evidence by application of the natural sciences to law-science matters.” (“Kriminalistik” was coined in the late nineteenth century by Hans Gross, a researcher in criminal law and procedure, to define his methodology of classifying investigative, tactical, and evidential information to be learned by magistrates at law schools to solve crimes and help convict criminals.) In the scheme as it currently stands, criminalistics is part of forensic science; the word is a regionalism and is not universally applied as defined. Difficulties in differentiating the concepts certainly invited the definition of criminalistics as the “science of individualization,” isolating this specific epistemologically problematic core from the other scientific disciplines. Individualization, the concept of determining the sole source of an item, enthroned a linear process—identification or classification on to individualization—losing sight of the holistic, variable contribution of all types of evidence. Assessing the circumstances surrounding a crime, in which the challenge is to integrate and organize the data to reconstruct a case or propose alternative propositions for events under examination, requires multiple types of evidence, some of which may be quite nuanced in their interpretation. This is also true in the use of so-called forensic intelligence, which feeds investigative, police, or security needs, in which one of the main reasons for failures is linkage blindness. Nevertheless, it seems that the essence of the forensic daily practice is hardly captured within the present definitions of both terms. Forensic science reconstructs—in the broadest sense—past criminal events through the analysis of the physical remnants of those activities (evidence); the results of those analyses and their expert interpretation establish relationships among people, places, and objects relevant to those events. It produces these results and interpretations through logical inferences, induction, abduction, and deduction, all of which frame the hypothetico-deductive method; investigative heuristics also play a role. Translating scientific information into legal information is a particular domain of forensic science; other sciences must (or at least should) communicate their findings to the public, but forensic science is often required by law to communicate their findings to public courts. Indeed, as the Daubert hearing stated, “scientific conclusions are subject to perpetual revision as law must resolve disputes finally and quickly.” This doubly difficult requirement of communicating to the public and to the law necessitates that forensic scientists should be better communicators of their work and their results. Scientific inferences are not necessarily legal proofs, and the forensic scientist must recognize that legal decisions based, in part, on their scientific work may not accord with their expert knowledge. Moreover, scientists must think in probabilities to explain evidence given possible causes, whereas jurists must deal in terms of belief beyond reasonable doubt. As Inman and Rudin state, “Because we [the scientists] provide results and information to parties who lack the expertise to independently understand their meaning and implications, it is up to us to furnish an accurate and complete interpretation of our results. If we do not do this, our conclusions are at best incomplete, at worst potentially misleading.” The Trace as the Basic Unit of Forensic Science
The basic unit of forensic science is the trace, the physical remnant of the past criminal activity. Traces are, by their very nature, semiotic: They represent something more than merely themselves; they are signifiers or signs for the items or events that are its source. A fiber is not the sweater it came from, a fingerprint is not the fingertip, soot in the trachea is not the victim choking from a fire, blood droplets are not the violence against the victim, but they all point to their origin (source and activity) to a greater or lesser degree of specificity. Thus, the trace is a type of proxy data (i.e., an indicator of a related phenomenon but not the phenomenon itself). Traces come from the natural and manufactured items that surround us in our daily lives. Traces are, in essence, the raw material available at a crime scene that becomes forensic intelligence or knowledge. Everyday items and their traces become evidence through their involvement in criminal activities; the activities add meaning to their existing status as goods in the world; a fireplace poker is transformed into “the murder weapon” by its use as such. The meaning added should also take into account the context of the case—the circumstances under which the criminal activities occurred—boarding the trier of fact mandate. Traces become evidence when they are recognized, accepted as relevant (if blurred) to the past event under investigation, and collected for...