Jimenez Cisneros / Rose Urban Water Security: Managing Risks

UNESCO-IHP
Erscheinungsjahr 2008
ISBN: 978-0-203-88162-0
Verlag: Taylor & Francis
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 324 Seiten

Understanding the impacts of urbanization on the urban water cycle and managing the associated health risks demand adequate strategies and measures. Health risks associated with urban water systems and services include the microbiological and chemical contamination of urban waters and outbreak of water-borne diseases, mainly due to poor water and sanitation in urban areas, and the discharge as well as the disposal of inadequately treated, or untreated, industrial and domestic wastewater. Climate change only exacerbates these problems, as alternative scenarios need to be taken into consideration in urban water risk management.
Urban Water Security: Managing Risks – the result of a project by UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme on the topic – addresses issues associated with urban water risks. The first section of the volume describes risks associated with urban water systems and services. The volume then discusses the concept of risk management for urban water systems and explores different approaches to managing and controlling urban water risks. A concluding section presents case studies on managing urban water risks.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Jimenez Cisneros, Blanca

Rose, Joan B.

Fachgebiete

• Geowissenschaften Umweltwissenschaften Wasserversorgung

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1 Introduction

2 Drinking water – Potential health effects caused by wastewater disposal

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Direct and indirect wastewater reuse

2.3 Microbiological risks

2.3.1 Viruses

2.3.2 Bacteria

2.3.3 Protozoa

2.3.4 Helminths

2.4 Risk reduction of pathogens in drinking water

2.5 Chemical risks

2.6 Treated wastewater in surface waters

2.7 The occurrence of pharmaceuticals in drinking water

2.8 Risk management of microbial and chemical hazards

2.9 Implementation of Water Safety Plans

2.10 HACCP

2.11 Hazard analysis

2.12 Conclusions

2.13 References

3 Microbial Health Risks and Water Quality

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The Traditional Icons of Waterborne Disease

3.2.1 Cholera

3.2.2 Typhoid

3.2.3 Hepatitis

3.2.4 Generic Diarrhea

3.3 Emerging Diseases and Zoonotic Pathogens

3.3.1 Cryptosporidium

3.3.2 Cyclospora

3.3.3 E. coli O157:H7

3.3.4 Helicobacter

3.4 Risk Assessment and Control of Waterborne Pathogens

3.4.1 Use of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment

3.4.2 Interventions to reduce enteric diseases
3.4.3 Vaccinations

3.5 Conclusions and Recommendations

3.6 References

4 Chemical Health Risks

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Human Health Risks

4.2.1 An Overview on Exposure Factors

4.2.2 Human Exposure in Urban Water Cycle

4.3 Risk Sources and Risk Compounds in Urban Water Cycle

4.3.1 Releases to Water

4.3.2 Chemical Compounds

4.4 Inorganic Chemical Risk Agents: Sources and Human Health Diseases of Concern

4.4.1 Nitrates and Nitrites

4.4.2 Fluoride

4.4.3 Toxic Metals

4.4.3.1 Arsenic

4.4.3.2 Mercury

4.4.3.3 Lead

4.5 Organic Chemical Risk Agents: Sources and Human Health Diseases of Concern

4.5.1 Hydrocarbons Compounds

4.5.2 Chlorinated Organic Compounds

4.5.2.1 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

4.5.2.2 Solvents

4.5.2.3 Trihalomethanes (THMs)

4.5.3 Pesticides

4.5.4 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

4.5.5 New Chemicals

4.6 Chemical Risks in Urban Cities in Developed Countries

4.6.1 Fluoride

4.6.1.1 China

4.6.1.2 Japan

4.6.1.3 United States of America

4.6.2 Arsenic (As)

4.6.2.1 Canada

4.6.2.2 China

4.6.2.3 United States of America

4.6.3 Mercury

4.6.3.1 Canada Arctic

4.6.3.2 China

4.6.3.3 Japan

4.6.3.4 United States of America

4.6.4 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

4.6.4.1 Netherlands

4.6.4.2 United States of America

4.6.5 Trihalomethanes (THMs)

4.6.5.1 Alaska

4.6.5.2 Canada

4.6.5.3 United Kingdom

4.6.5.4 United States of America

4.6.6 New Chemicals

4.7 Chemical Risks in Urban Cities in Developing Countries

4.7.1 Fluoride

4.7.1.1 Brazil

4.7.1.2 Ethiopia

4.7.1.3 India

4.7.1.4 Kenya

4.7.1.5 Mexico

4.7.1.6 Saudi Arabia

4.7.1.7 South Africa

4.7.1.8 Turkey

4.7.1.9 United Republic of Tanzania

4.7.2 Arsenic (As)

4.7.2.1 Argentina

4.7.2.2 Bangladesh – West Bengal, India

4.7.2.3 Chile

4.7.2.4 Mexico

4.7.2.5 Taiwan

4.7.2.6 Thailand

4.7.2.7 Vietnam

4.7.3 Mercury (Hg)

4.7.3.1 Brazil

4.7.3.2 Philippines

4.7.3.3 South Africa

4.7.4 Trihalomethanes (THMs)

4.7.4.1 Greece

4.7.4.2 Malaysia

4.7.4.3 Mexico

4.7.4.4 Turkey

4.7.5 Pesticides

4.7.5.1 Brazil

4.7.5.2 Egypt

4.7.5.3 South Africa

4.8 Chemical Risk Management in Urban Water Cycle
4.8.1 Chemical Risks Identification in Urban Water Cycle

4.8.1.1 Drinking water

4.8.1.2 Other water-related chemical risks

4.8.2 Vulnerability and Variability

4.8.3 Urban Water Policy

4.9 References

5 Risk Management on the urban water cycle. Climate change risks

5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Global climate change

5.1.2 Global climate change and hydrological cycle

5.1.3 Mitigation of GHG emissions

5.2 Water in an urbanized world

5.2.1 Water scarcity

5.3 Impacts and risks

5.3.1 Water availability and glacial melt

5.3.2 Sea level rise and extreme events

5.3.3 Water quality

5.3.4 Changes in the past decades related to Global Climate Change

5.3.5 Risks for urban settlements

5.4 Adaptation and integration of climate change into urban water resource management

5.4.1 Adaptation and sustainable development
5.4.2 Planning under uncertainties

5.4.3 Supply and demand options

5.4.4 Urban water management

5.4.5 Poverty and equity

5.4.6 International aid

5.5 Conclusions
5.6 References

6 Water source and drinking water risk management

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Security, Reliability and Risk

6.3 Uncertainty, Threats and Effects

6.4 Prevention, Mitigation and Resolution

6.5 Scarcity and Drought, an Operational Example

6.6 Conclusions and Recommendations

7 Wastewater risks in the urban water cycle

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Pollutants sources

7.2.1 Point sources

7.2.1.1 Municipal wastewater

7.2.1.2 Industrial wastewater

7.2.1.3 Stormwater

7.2.2 Non point pollutant sources

7.2.2.1 Urban infrastructure

7.2.2.2 Urban activities
7.2.2.3 Disposal practices

7.2.2.4 Other sources

7.3 Pollutants involved

7.3.1 Conventional parameters

7.3.2 Biological pollutants

7.3.3 Emerging pollutants

7.3.3.1 Content in water

7.3.3.2 Content in surface and groundwater

7.4 Management

7.4.1 Changing the concept of pollution sources

7.4.2 Gathering useful information

7.4.3 Monitoring campaigns
7.4.4 Water Sources management

7.4.4.1 Groundwater

7.4.4.2 Surface water

7.4.5 Pollutant management

7.4.5.1 Biological pollutants

7.4.5.2 Chemical compounds

7.4.6 Urban infrastructure and urban activities

7.4.7 Climate change

7.4.8 Education and research

7.5 Treatment

7.5.1 Biological pollutants

7.5.2 Emerging pollutants

7.5.3 Criteria for selecting wastewater treatment processes

7.6 Wastewater disposal

7.6.1 Soil disposal

7.6.1.1 Soil disposal and aquifer storage

7.6.1.2 Soil disposal and agriculture

7.6.2 Disposal in water bodies

7.6.2.1 Eutrophication

7.6.2.2 Coupling wastewater disposal with water reuse

7.7 Conclusions

7.8 References

8 Risks Associated with Biosolids Reuse in Agriculture

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Nutrient and agronomic value

8.3 Microbiological quality

8.4 Potentially toxic elements

8.5 Organic contaminants

8.6 Conclusions

8.7 References

9 “Closing the Urban Water Cycle” Integrated Approach towards Water Reuse in Windhoek, Namibia

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Water sources in Windhoek

9.2.1 Conventional water sources

9.3 Reuse Options Implemented in Windhoek

9.4 Future water supply augmentation to Windhoek

9.5 Various process modifications from 1968 to 1995

9.6 Process design for the new Goreangab water reclamation plant

9.6.1 Summary

9.6.2 Raw Water Quality Profile

9.6.3 Determination of Treatment Objectives

9.6.4 The Multiple-Barrier Concept

9.6.5 Experiments and Pilot Studies to Determine Process Design Criteria

9.7 Selection of Final Process Train

9.8 Operational Experience to Date

9.9 Water Quality and Monitoring

9.10 Quality concerns with the present process configuration

9.11 Cost Considerations

9.12 Public Acceptance of Direct Potable Reuse

9.13 New Research and Development Options

9.14 Conclusion

9.15 References

10 Reducing risk from wastewater use in urban farming – a case study of Accra, Ghana

10.1 Introduction

10.2 The case of Accra

10.2.1 Urban water use and wastewater management

10.2.2 Irrigated urban vegetable farming

10.2.3 Irrigation water quality

10.2.4 Quality of vegetables in urban markets in Accra

10.2.5 Numbers of consumers at risks
10.2.6 Risk Assessment to farmers and consumers

10.3 Risk reduction measures

10.3.1 Explore alternative farmland, tenure security and safer water sources

10.3.2 Promote safer irrigation methods

10.3.3 Influence the choice of crops grown

10.3.4 Avoid post-harvest contamination

10.3.5 Assist post-harvest decontamination

10.3.6 Improve institutional coordination to develop integrated policies

10.4 Conclusions

10.5 References

11 Drinking water – potential health effects caused by infiltration of pollutants from solid waste landfills

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Pollutants in landfill leachates

11.3 The exposure pathways and mechanisms

11.4 Cases

11.5 Conclusions

11.6 References

12 Exploding sewers: the industrial use and abuse of municipal sewers, and reducing the risk—the experience of Louisville, Kentucky US

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The Hexa-Octa Incident

12.3 The sewer explosions

12.4 Industrial waste and hazardous spills

12.5 About the Louisville and Jefferson County Metropolitan Sewer District (MSD)

12.6 Reasons for doing permitting and pretreatment compliance programs

12.7 Components of the Permitting and Pretreatment Compliance Program

12.7.1 Commercial/industrial process plan review

12.7.2 Permits

12.7.3 Unusual Discharge Requests (UDR)

12.7.4 Industrial inspections

12.7.5 Sampling and monitoring

12.7.6 Compliance and enforcement

12.8 Chemical Spill Prevention and Response—The Hazardous Materials Incident Response Team

12.9 Sampling and Monitoring to reduce risk—the Collection System Monitoring Program

12.9.1 Data management and computerization

12.10 Conclusions: need for strong local programs to reduce risk

12.11 References

13 Lessons learned: a response and recovery framework for post-disaster scenarios

13.1 Introduction

13.1.1 Background

13.1.2 Rationale

13.1.3 Objectives

13.1.4 Methodology

13.1.5 General Principles
13.2 Response and Recovery Framework

13.2.1 General Guidelines

13.2.2 Immediate Aftermath (0-7 Days)

13.2.3 Short Term (Next 60 days)

13.2.4 Medium term (Next 3-12 Months)

13.3 Conclusion
13.4 References

14 Managing urban water risks: Managing drought and climate change risks in Australia

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Managing Drought Risks

14.3 Adapting to Climate Change Impacts

14.3.1 Climate Change Forecasts

14.3.2 Modeling of Impacts

14.3.3 Water Reforms and Environmental Flows

14.3.4 Climate Change Impacts

14.3.5 Adapting with Water Savings and Water Reuse

14.4 Adaptation Case Study

14.4.1 The Sydney Water System

14.4.2 The Sydney Metropolitan Water Plan 2006

14.4.3 Managing Drought Risks

14.4.4 Enhanced Stochastic Analyses

14.4.5 Economic Analyses

14.4.6 Another Example

14.5 Additional Drought Security Issues

14.5.1 Drought Severity

14.5.2 Hindcasting

14.5.3 Starting Storage

14.5.4 Demand Variability

14.5.5 Demand Hardening

14.5.6 Building Diverse Water Portfolios

14.6 Conclusions

14.7 References