Kaestner Development, Differentiation and Disease of the Para-Alimentary Tract

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-0-12-385234-2
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band Volume 97, 304 Seiten

Reihe: Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science

Understanding how digestive organs develop, their physiology and structure is important for determining new therapies to combat diseases of the digestive organs. This volume reviews the latest research and developments in this field. - Discusses new discoveries, approaches, and ideas - Contributions from leading scholars and industry experts - Reference guide for researchers involved in molecular biology and related fields

Autoren/Hrsg.

Kaestner, Klaus

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science: Development, Differentiation and Disease of the Para-Alimentary Tract;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Contents;6
5;Contributors;10
6;Preface;12
7;Chapter 1: Transcriptional Control of Acinar Development and Homeostasis;14
7.1;I. Introduction;15
7.2;II. Formation of the Multipotent Progenitor Cell (MPC) Population;18
7.3;III. Transcriptional Induction of Acinar Cell-Fate and the Onset of Differentiation;23
7.4;IV. Acinar Cell Differentiation;30
7.5;V. Transcriptional Control of the Maintenance, Self-Renewal and Plasticity of Acinar Cells;41
7.6;Acknowledgement;45
7.7;References;45
8;Chapter 2: Molecular Biology of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Progression: Aberrant Activation of Developmental Pathways;54
8.1;I. Introduction;55
8.2;II. Anatomy of the Exocrine Pancreas;55
8.3;III. Development of the Exocrine Pancreas;57
8.4;IV. Genetic Alterations in PDAC;67
8.5;V. Activation of Developmental Pathways Driving Cancer Progression;73
8.6;VI. Concluding Remarks;79
8.7;References;79
9;Chapter 3: Transcriptional Control of Hepatocyte Differentiation;92
9.1;I. Overview of Liver Development;92
9.2;II. Transcription Factors Controlling Hepatic Competence of the Definitive Endoderm;94
9.3;III. Specification of Competent Endoderm Cells into Hepatoblasts and Expansion of the Liver Bud;96
9.4;IV. Differentiation of Hepatoblasts into Hepatocytes;98
9.5;V. Transcriptional Networks Define Maturation of Hepatocytes;101
9.6;VI. Conclusion;105
9.7;References;107
10;Chapter 4: Molecular Mechanisms of Biliary Development;116
10.1;I. Introduction;116
10.2;II. Morphogenesis of the Intrahepatic Bile Ducts;117
10.3;III. Signaling Mechanisms Controlling Cholangiocyte Differentiation and Biliary Tubulogenesis;121
10.4;IV. Transcriptional Regulation of Biliary Differentiation;126
10.5;V. Transcriptional Regulation of Biliary Tubulogenesis;128
10.6;VI. Regulation of Biliary Development by MicroRNAs;129
10.7;VII. Development of the Extrahepatic Biliary Tree;130
10.8;VIII. Conclusions;133
10.9;Acknowledgments;133
10.10;References;133
11;Chapter 5: Molecular Determinants of Liver Zonation;140
11.1;I. Introduction;141
11.2;II. The Concept of Liver Zonation;141
11.3;III. The Wnt/beta-Catenin ``Zonation-Keeper´´ Pathway;147
11.4;IV. The Control of a Zone-Specific Transcription by beta-Catenin;154
11.5;V. Future Prospects and Conclusion;158
11.6;Acknowledgments;158
11.7;References;158
12;Chapter 6: Fibrosis in the Liver: Acute Protection and Chronic Disease;164
12.1;I. Clinical Impact;165
12.2;II. Patterns of Fibrosis Progression;166
12.3;III. Fibrogenic Stimuli;167
12.4;IV. Extracellular Matrix;172
12.5;V. Cellular Sources of ECM;174
12.6;VI. Fibrosis-Related Receptors and Signaling Pathways;182
12.7;VII. Disease-Specific Mechanisms of Hepatic Fibrogenesis;186
12.8;VIII. Genetic Determinants of Hepatic Fibrosis;188
12.9;IX. Reversibility of Hepatic Fibrosis and Cirrhosis;191
12.10;References;194
13;Chapter 7: Hierarchies of Transcriptional Regulation During Liver Regeneration;214
13.1;I. Introduction: Models and Applications of Liver Regeneration;215
13.2;II. Preexisting Transcription Factors Dominate During the Early Response to Partial Hepatectomy;218
13.3;III. Nuclear Receptors and De Novo Synthesized Transcription Factors Control Cell Proliferation During Liver Regeneration;223
13.4;IV. Termination of Liver Regeneration and Liver Size Adjustment;230
13.5;V. Conclusions: Recent Progress and Significance of Molecular Mechanisms Controlling Liver Regeneration;233
13.6;References;234
14;Chapter 8: Biology of the Adult Hepatic Progenitor Cell: ‘‘Ghosts in the Machine’’;242
14.1;I. Introduction: The Oval Cell;243
14.2;II. Canals of Hering: The Putative Oval Cell Niche;245
14.3;III. Oval Cell-Mediated Liver Regeneration;248
14.4;IV. Molecular Regulation of the Oval Cell Response;249
14.5;V. From Bench to Bedside: Isolation of Hepatic Progenitors and Their Use in Medicine;251
14.6;VI. Hepatic Stem Cells and Liver Cancer;255
14.7;VII. Conclusions;256
14.8;References;257
15;Chapter 9: Signaling Networks in Human Hepatocarcinogenesis-Novel Aspects and Therapeutic Options;264
15.1;I. Introduction;264
15.2;II. Molecular Mechanisms of HCC Development and Progression;266
15.3;III. Development of Tumor-Supporting Networks;274
15.4;IV. Development of Therapeutic Strategies for HCC;277
15.5;V. Conclusion;282
15.6;References;283
16;Index;292
17;Color Plate;300

Leseproben

Molecular Biology of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Progression
Aberrant Activation of Developmental Pathways
Andrew D. Rhim*,†; Ben Z. Stanger*,†    * Gastroenterology Division, Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA
† Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA Abstract
Embryonic development marks a period of peak tissue growth and morphogenesis in the mammalian lifecycle. Many of the pathways that underlie cell proliferation and movement are relatively quiescent in adult animals but become reactivated during carcinogenesis. This phenomenon has been particularly well documented in pancreatic cancer, where detailed genetic studies and a robust mouse model have permitted investigators to test the role of various developmental signals in cancer progression. In this chapter, we review current knowledge regarding the signaling pathways that act during pancreatic development and the evidence that the reactivation of developmentally important signals is critical for the pathogenesis of this treatment-refractory malignancy. Keywords Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma Development Pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia Notch Hedgehog Signaling TGF-ß Mouse model Kras Metastasis I Introduction
Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is the 10th most prevalent cancer in the United States, with an estimated incidence of 42,000 people in 2009,1 and it is the fourth most common cause of cancer-related death. The prognosis of PDAC is poor, with only approximately 5% of patients surviving 5 years after diagnosis. The vast majority of PDAC patients die from complications of metastatic disease. Even patients who undergo pancreas resection for limited disease with no clinical evidence of metastasis have poor prognosis, as approximately 80% of these patients will also succumb to metastatic disease.2 Thus, while cancers of all origins share many of the same hallmarks,3 PDAC is unique in its ability to form large tumors and metastasize, ultimately killing the host and circumventing treatments that are efficacious in other malignancies. In order to intervene in this particularly lethal cancer, it will be essential to understand the unique features of pancreatic biology and the accumulation of molecular events that are seen exclusively in pancreatic cancer. We will begin with a brief review of the major themes of pancreas development and adult exocrine pancreas biology. Then, we will review the molecular underpinnings of PDAC, highlighting the reemergence of developmental pathways during cancer progression (Table I). Table I Reemergent Developmental Pathways in PDAC Hedgehog Suppression required for pancreas specification Canonical: Desmoplasia Noncanonical: Unclear FGF Pancreas specification, proliferation, differentiation, cell fate Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), proliferation Notch Differentiation, cell fate EMT, proliferation TGF-ß Pancreas specification, proliferation, differentiation, cell fate EMT, proliferation, desmoplasia Retinoic acid Pancreas specification, differentiation, cell fate Unclear; putative marker of cancer stem cells EGF Proliferation, differentiation Proliferation, desmoplasia Wnt/ß-catenin Pancreas specification, cell fate PanIN formation II Anatomy of the Exocrine Pancreas
The pancreas is an endoderm-derived organ located in the upper abdomen of vertebrates, adjacent to the stomach, duodenum, and spleen. It maintains an independent blood supply from other abdominal organs. It also features a connection to the intestines via the main pancreatic duct, which serves to empty secretions from the pancreas into the intestinal lumen. The pancreas comprises two compartments with distinct functions. The endocrine pancreas functions as a central regulator of glucose and metabolic homeostasis. Cells that compose the endocrine pancreas are organized within structures called the Islets of Langerhans (Fig. 1). Islets of Langerhans are nestled within the pancreatic parenchyma, often intimately associated with blood vessels. While islets are scattered throughout the pancreas, they are densely concentrated in the tail. Within these islets, a-, ß-, d-, ?-, and PP-cells secrete the hormones glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, ghrelin, and pancreatic polypeptide, respectively, in response to metabolic and chemical cues from the local blood supply. While carcinomas of the endocrine pancreas occur, these are relatively rare and are beyond the scope of this chapter. Fig. 1 Histology of the pancreas. Hematoxylin and eosin staining of a normal pancreas, depicting an Islet of Langerhans (I), pancreatic duct (D), and blood vessel (V) surrounded by acini (A). 10×. The exocrine pancreas, from which PDAC arises, aids in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Composing more than 90% of the organ, the exocrine compartment contains acinar and centroacinar cells interconnected by an elaborate epithelial-lined ductal network (Fig. 1). Acinar cells form discrete units, appropriately called acini, which, in cross-section, represent a circular cluster of polarized cells organized around a small concentric lumen. The apical portions of acinar cells face the middle of these acinar units, adjacent to the centrally positioned centroacinar cells. In response to the ingestion of food or drink, the upper intestine releases secretin and cholecystokinin, leading acinar cells to secrete inactive forms of digestive enzymes called zymogens. Zymogens undergo activation in an acidic environment; hence, concomitant release of bicarbonate by ductal cells maintains an alkaline microenvironment and prevents activation of digestive enzymes prior to exiting the pancreas. The lumens of the acinar units drain into a complex, interconnected network of epithelium-lined ducts which then anastomose to the main pancreatic duct, which in turn traverses the length of the pancreas. In most vertebrates, the main pancreatic duct represents the major conduit of drainage of pancreatic juice. The pancreatic duct then connects with the common bile duct, and pancreatic juice enters the intestine through the ampulla of Vater, located in the second portion of the duodenum. Intercalated within the pancreatic parenchyma are mesenchyme-derived stromal cells, composed mostly of endothelial cells and quiescent fibroblasts. In nondiseased states, the stroma represents less than 1% of the pancreas. These cells are thought to primarily support the normal functioning of the epithelium by maintaining the intercellular structure of the organ. However, accumulating evidence has implicated pancreatic fibroblasts—especially the stellate cell, a specialized fibroblast—in additional tasks important for the normal functioning of the pancreas, including storage of Vitamin A, immune system regulation and surveillance, and maintenance of endothelial cell turnover.4,5 A complex, bidirectional interplay of signals between the stromal and epithelial compartments coordinates homeostasis within the organ. As will be discussed later, upon injury or carcinogenesis, signaling pathways active during pancreas development are reactivated, leading to the activation, accumulation, and diversification of the stromal compartment. III Development of the Exocrine Pancreas
Many cancers share common characteristics, as outlined previously3; however, each type of cancer is unique in its tissue of origin and developmental history. It is widely believed that the molecular events leading to carcinoma differ by tissue type and even by the specific cell of origin within a single organ. Consistent with these observations is the concept that key events leading to carcinogenesis involve the abnormal activation of developmental pathways specific to the ontogeny of the source or index cell.6 Indeed, recent work has supported the notion that this may be the case for PDAC. Thus, much insight into how PDAC forms has been attained by the assiduous study of normal exocrine pancreas development and mechanisms. Our understanding of early pancreas development comes from detailed studies using the mouse as a model system. By employing a variety of techniques, most importantly lineage labeling technology, investigators have been able to describe many of the morphogenic and genetic events involved in pancreas formation. A Early Steps Preceding Pancreatic Budding
Regional specification of the pancreas anlagen occurs as early as gastrulation. In studies of chicken development, fibroblast growth factor 4 (FGF4) released by the mesectoderm enables a region of the mesoderm to become responsive to propancreatic signals secreted by the mesoderm-derived notochord. Later in gastrulation, retinoic...