Kim Marine Carbohydrates: Fundamentals and Applications, Part A

1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-12-800366-4
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band Volume 72, 246 Seiten

Reihe: Advances in Food and Nutrition Research

Marine Carbohydrates: Fundamentals and Applications brings together the diverse range of research in this important area which leads to clinical and industrialized products. The volume, number 72, focuses on marine carbohydrates in isolation, biological, and biomedical applications and provides the latest trends and developments on marine carbohydrates. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research recognizes the integral relationship between the food and nutritional sciences and brings together outstanding and comprehensive reviews that highlight this relationship. Volumes provide those in academia and industry with the latest information on emerging research in these constantly evolving sciences. - Includes the isolation techniques for the exploration of the marine habitat for novel polysaccharides - Discusses biological applications such as antioxidant, antiallergic, antidiabetic, antiobesity and antiviral activity of marine carbohydrates - Provides an insight into present trends and approaches for marine carbohydrates

Autoren/Hrsg.

Kim, Se-Kwon

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Marine Carbohydrates: Fundamentals and Applications, Part A;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Contents;6
5;Contributors;10
6;Preface;12
7;Chapter One: Isolation and Characterization of Chitin and Chitosan from Marine Origin;14
7.1;1. Current Status of Chitin and Chitosan;15
7.2;2. Production of Chitin, Chitosan and Chito-oligosaccharide from Marine Materials;16
7.2.1;2.1. Production of chitin and chitosan;16
7.2.2;2.2. Production of LMW chitosan and chito-oligosaccharides;19
7.2.2.1;2.2.1. Depolymerization of chitosan with chemical method;20
7.2.2.2;2.2.2. Depolymerization of chitosan with enzymatic method;22
7.3;3. Physicochemical Properties of Chitin and Chitosan;22
7.3.1;3.1. Appearance of chitin and chitosan;22
7.3.2;3.2. Turbidity of chitin and chitosan solution;24
7.3.3;3.3. Determination of degree of deacetylation and degree of acetylation;24
7.3.4;3.4. Determination of molecular weight of chitosan;26
7.4;References;27
8;Chapter Two: Hybrid Carrageenans: Isolation, Chemical Structure, and Gel Properties;30
8.1;1. Introduction;31
8.2;2. Chemical Structure and Gel Mechanism;32
8.2.1;2.1. Seaweeds chemistry;32
8.2.2;2.2. Hybrid carrageenan macromolecular structure;34
8.3;3. Isolation of Hybrid Carrageenan: From the Seaweeds to the Extracted Polysaccharide;36
8.3.1;3.1. Season variability and postharvest storage of algal material;37
8.3.2;3.2. Alkali pretreatment of seaweeds to tune the hybrid carrageenan chemistry;39
8.3.3;3.3. Aquaculture in the dark: An eco-friendly alternative to alkali treatment of carrageenophytes?;39
8.4;4. Gel Properties;41
8.4.1;4.1. Rotational rheometry;41
8.4.1.1;4.1.1. Small deformation;41
8.4.1.2;4.1.2. Large deformation: Nonlinear rheology;43
8.4.2;4.2. Experimental considerations on the rheology of carrageenan gels;43
8.4.3;4.3. Penetration tests;46
8.4.4;4.4. Effects of salt type and concentration;46
8.4.5;4.5. Effects of hybrid carrageenan concentration;49
8.4.6;4.6. Relationships between the chemical structure and the gel properties;51
8.4.7;4.7. Large deformation behavior and gels under steady flow;52
8.5;5. Perspectives;53
8.6;Acknowledgments;53
8.7;References;53
9;Chapter Three: Isolation of Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin/Heparan Sulfate from Marine Sources;58
9.1;1. Introduction;59
9.2;2. History of Heparin;60
9.3;3. Anticoagulant Activity of Heparin;61
9.4;4. Sources of Heparin;62
9.4.1;4.1. Terrestrial sources;62
9.4.2;4.2. Marine sources;63
9.5;5. Difference Between Heparin and HS;65
9.6;6. Biomedical Significance of LMWH/HS;66
9.7;7. Isolation of LMWH Sulfate;67
9.7.1;7.1. Chemical synthesis of low molecular heparin/HS;67
9.7.2;7.2. Enzymatic synthesis of low molecular heparin/HSs;68
9.7.3;7.3. Chromatography separation of LMWH/HS;69
9.8;8. Conclusion;71
9.9;References;72
10;Chapter Four: Isolation and Characterization of Hyaluronic Acid from Marine Organisms;74
10.1;1. Introduction;75
10.2;2. Targeted Sources for HA in the Past and Present Era;75
10.3;3. Structure of Hyaluronic Acid;77
10.4;4. Isolation Methods;77
10.4.1;4.1. Extraction by enzyme digestion method;79
10.4.2;4.2. Extraction with organic solvents and sodium acetate;79
10.4.3;4.3. Microbial production;80
10.4.4;4.4. Supplementary methods;80
10.5;5. Characterization of Hyaluronic Acid;80
10.5.1;5.1. Electrophoretic analysis;81
10.5.2;5.2. Spectroscopic investigation;81
10.5.3;5.3. Compositional analysis;83
10.5.4;5.4. Determination of molecular weight and viscosity;83
10.6;6. Conclusion;84
10.7;Acknowledgments;86
10.8;References;86
11;Chapter Five: Extracellular Polysaccharides Produced by Marine Bacteria;92
11.1;1. Introduction;93
11.2;2. Extracellular Polysaccharides;94
11.3;3. Roles of Microbial EPS in the Marine Environment;94
11.4;4. Biosynthesis;96
11.5;5. Source of Extracellular Polysaccharide-Producing Bacteria;96
11.6;6. Isolation of Extracellular Polysaccharide-Producing Bacteria;96
11.7;7. Marine EPS-Producing Microorganisms;96
11.7.1;7.1. Marine bacteria;96
11.7.2;7.2. Marine cyanobacteria;100
11.7.3;7.3. Marine actinobacteria;101
11.8;8. Biotechnological Applications of Extracellular Polysaccharides;102
11.8.1;8.1. Medicinal applications;102
11.8.2;8.2. Gelling agent;102
11.8.3;8.3. Emulsifiers;103
11.8.4;8.4. Heavy metal removal;103
11.8.5;8.5. Enhanced oil recovery;103
11.9;9. Conclusions;103
11.10;Acknowledgments;104
11.11;References;104
12;Chapter Six: Biological Activities of Alginate;108
12.1;1. Introduction;109
12.2;2. Macrophage-Stimulating Activities of Alginates;111
12.2.1;2.1. Sources of alginates;111
12.2.2;2.2. Preparation of alginate oligomers;111
12.2.3;2.3. Cytokine-inducing activities of alginates with different molecular characteristics in mouse macrophage cell line RAW ...;113
12.2.4;2.4. Effects of enzymatic digestion on the TNF-a-inducing activities of alginates;114
12.2.5;2.5. Effects of specific MAP kinase inhibitors on the TNF-a-inducing activities of alginate (I-S) and its enzymatically di ...;116
12.2.6;2.6. Nitric oxide-inducing activities of alginate and its enzymatically digested alginate oligomer mixture;118
12.3;3. Antioxidant Activities of Alginate;119
12.4;References;121
13;Chapter Seven: Biological Activities of Carrageenan;126
13.1;1. Introduction;126
13.2;2. Carrageenan Source and Extraction;128
13.3;3. Biological Activities;130
13.3.1;3.1. Anticoagulant activity;130
13.3.2;3.2. Antiviral agents;130
13.3.3;3.3. Cholesterol-lowering effects;132
13.3.4;3.4. Immunomodulatory activity;132
13.3.5;3.5. Antioxidant activity;133
13.3.6;3.6. Antitumor activity;133
13.4;4. Food and Technological Applications of Carrageenan;134
13.5;5. Conclusions;135
13.6;References;136
14;Chapter Eight: Biological Activities of Heparan Sulfate;138
14.1;1. Introduction;138
14.2;2. Materials and Methods;140
14.2.1;2.1. Isolation;140
14.2.2;2.2. Anticoagulant activity;141
14.2.3;2.3. Antiproliferative activity;141
14.2.4;2.4. 1H-NMR;141
14.3;3. Results;142
14.4;4. Discussion;143
14.5;Acknowledgments;147
14.6;References;147
15;Chapter Nine: Beneficial Effects of Hyaluronic Acid;150
15.1;1. Introduction;151
15.2;2. Structure of Hyaluronic Acid;152
15.3;3. Properties of Hyaluronic Acid;154
15.4;4. Modification of Hyaluronic Acid;154
15.5;5. Applications of Hyaluronic Acid;159
15.5.1;5.1. Biomedical applications;159
15.5.2;5.2. TE applications;165
15.5.2.1;5.2.1. Lung TE applications;165
15.5.2.2;5.2.2. Bone TE applications;166
15.5.2.3;5.2.3. Stem cells for TE applications;168
15.5.2.4;5.2.4. Cartilage TE applications;168
15.5.2.5;5.2.5. Heart TE applications;170
15.5.2.6;5.2.6. Brain TE applications;171
15.5.2.7;5.2.7. Dermal TE applications;172
15.5.3;5.3. Drug delivery applications;173
15.5.4;5.4. Gene delivery applications;175
15.5.5;5.5. Targeted drug delivery;176
15.5.6;5.6. HA hydrogels;178
15.5.7;5.7. Tumor treatment;179
15.5.8;5.8. Environmental applications;180
15.5.9;5.9. Sensors;181
15.6;6. Conclusion;181
15.7;Acknowledgments;181
15.8;References;181
16;Chapter Ten: Fucoidans from Marine Algae as Potential Matrix Metalloproteinase Inhibitors;190
16.1;1. Introduction;191
16.2;2. Sulfated Polysaccharides as Potential MMPIs;195
16.2.1;2.1. Galactans as potential MMPIs;195
16.2.2;2.2. Fucoidans as potential MMPIs;197
16.3;3. Conclusions and Further Prospects;201
16.4;Acknowledgments;202
16.5;References;202
17;Chapter Eleven: Anticancer Effects of Fucoidan;208
17.1;1. Introduction;208
17.2;2. Seaweed Polysaccharides;209
17.2.1;2.1. Fucoidan;210
17.2.2;2.2. Fucoidan structure and function;211
17.3;3. Fucoidan and Cancer;213
17.3.1;3.1. Anticancer effect;213
17.3.2;3.2. Role of fucoidan on metastasis, angiogenesis, and signaling mechanism;217
17.4;4. Conclusions;219
17.5;Acknowledgment;220
17.6;References;220
18;Chapter Twelve: Anticancer Effects of Chitin and Chitosan Derivatives;228
18.1;1. Introduction;228
18.2;2. Anticancer Activity as a Therapeutic Agent;230
18.3;3. Anticancer Activity as a Carrier;233
18.4;4. Conclusion;235
18.5;References;235
19;Index;240

Leseproben

Chapter Two Hybrid Carrageenans
Isolation, Chemical Structure, and Gel Properties
Loic Hilliou1    Institute for Polymers and Composites/I3N, University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
1 Corresponding author: email address: [e-mail] Abstract
Hybrid carrageenan is a special class of carrageenan with niche application in food industry. This polysaccharide is extracted from specific species of seaweeds belonging to the Gigartinales order. This chapter focuses on hybrid carrageenan showing the ability to form gels in water, which is known in the food industry as weak kappa or kappa-2 carrageenan. After introducing the general chemical structure defining hybrid carrageenan, the isolation of the polysaccharide will be discussed focusing on the interplay between seaweed species, extraction parameters, and the hybrid carrageenan chemistry. Then, the rheological experiments used to determine the small and large deformation behavior of gels will be detailed before reviewing the relationships between gel properties and hybrid carrageenan chemistry. Keywords Hybrid carrageenan Gel Solution Carrageenan mixture Strain at break 1 Introduction
Carrageenans are natural polymers contained in specific species of red seaweeds belonging to the Gigartinales order. These are polysaccharides showing a variety of chemical structures, resulting from a complex interplay between the seaweeds species, the seaweed life stage, and the extraction process used to recover the polysaccharide. Among the various types of carrageenans showing different gelling or viscosity enhancement properties in aqueous solutions, hybrid carrageenans have recently received increased interest (van de Velde, 2008). The latter is motivated by the steadily increasing demand for gelling additives for food and nonfood application, which puts under pressure the farming of seaweeds producing kappa-carrageenan (K) and iota-carrageenan (I) (Bixler, 1996; Bixler & Porse, 2011). Thus, alternative algal resources for carrageenan production are highly demanded (Bixler & Porse, 2011; McHugh, 2003), and seaweeds producing hybrid carrageenans can be a solution to the issue triggered by the market. Recently, hybrid carrageenans were found to positively replace mixtures of K and I used in niche application in dairy food (Bixler, Johndro, & Falshaw, 2001; Villanueva, Mendoza, Rodrigueza, Romero, & Montaño, 2004). In spite of the industrial need and interest in using hybrid carrageenans, there is a lack in the literature for the structural and mechanical characterization of hybrid carrageenan gels (van de Velde, 2008), which explains why the relationships between the hybrid carrageenan chemical structure, the gel microstructure, and the gel mechanical properties are not yet understood. This chapter focuses on the gel properties of hybrid carrageenan and addresses the relationships identified between the seaweeds biology, the extraction parameters, the chemical structure, and the gel properties. First, the biology and chemical composition of seaweeds producing hybrid carrageenan will be described. Then, the chemical structure of gelling hybrid carrageenan will be introduced together with the general proposed mechanisms for gel formation for K and I in the presence of salt. As this chapter is concerned with gelling hybrid carrageenan, two types of polysaccharides are solely discussed, namely, kappa/iota-hybrid carrageenan (KI) and their biological precursor kappa/iota/mu/nu-hybrid carrageenan (KIMN). Thus, the gel formation builds up on the mechanism devised for K and I. Then, the extraction process used to isolate the polysaccharide and the effect of extraction parameters on the macromolecular structure and chemistry of recovered polysaccharides will be discussed. With the characterized hybrid carrageenan in hand, gels will be formed and the rheological technique used to analyze their mechanical properties will be introduced before describing the effects of salt and polysaccharide concentrations on gel setting and elastic properties. Then, the interplay between hybrid carrageenan chemical structure and the gel properties will be discussed. Finally, the effect of steady flow on the gel setting and gel properties will be addressed as its relevance to the delivery of new food ingredients such as fluid gels or microgels (Garrec & Norton, 2012) and to the industrial processing of carrageenan is bright. 2 Chemical Structure and Gel Mechanism
2.1 Seaweeds chemistry
Before tackling the chemical structure of KI and KIMN, it is imperative to look at the chemical composition of seaweeds belonging to the Gigartinaceae, Petrocelidaceae, and Phylophoraceae families which are the major carrageenophytes used for the production of gelling hybrid carrageenan (see for instance the Stancioff's diagram in Bixler, 1996). Fourier transform infrared diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRIFT) is a versatile spectroscopic method which boosted the chemical analysis of seaweeds as no sample preparation but grinding dried seaweeds is required. DRIFT was applied to screen for the chemical composition of Gigartinales by Chopin, Kerin, and Mazerolle (1999). This extensive study performed on more than 50 species of the Gigartinales order confirmed that the chemical composition of seaweeds depends on its life stage, vegetative, or reproductive and in the latter case depends also on the gender of the gametophyte of specific seaweeds. Vegetative Gigartinales seaweeds are made of highly sulfated and nongelling carrageenan of the lambda-type, whereas the reproductive life stage produces K, I mu-carrageenan (M) and nu-carrageenan (N) in fronds and thalli of female and male gametophytes. The disaccharide units corresponding to these carrageenans are displayed in Fig. 2.1. This general picture was reached in earlier studies which relied on the isolation of polysaccharides with the inherent polymer chemical modification associated with the extraction process (see the tables in Chopin et al., 1999 where a direct comparison between DRIFT results and reports from the literature is offered). The impact of such modification on the qualitative chemical analysis of compounds contained in the seaweed was pointed recently in a study on Mastocarpus stellatus (Azevedo et al., 2013). DRIFT spectra of the native extracts obtained without alkali treatment showed all characteristic bands of K, I, M, and N disaccharide units, whereas both fronds and thalli did not show the specific band assigned to I, showing up at 805 cm- 1. The relative content in K, I, M, and N is however difficult to assess with this semiquantitative spectroscopic technique and thus hardly shows that the ratio between K and I is specific to each seaweed. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.2 where the DRIFT spectra of M. stellatus and Chondrus crispus hand collected on the Northern Portuguese coast are displayed, together with the spectra of commercial K and I (Sigma-Aldrich, Germany). Fronds and thalli of seaweeds were scratched on the DRIFT accessory pad of an FTIR spectrometer (Spectrum 100, PerkinElmer Ltd., UK), whereas powders were directly laid on the accessory. Both M. stellatus and C. crispus show the diagnose bands for I (805 cm- 1) and K (930 and 845 cm- 1). However, assessing whether C. crispus contains more K than M. stellatus is hard since ratios of K over I band intensities are 1.4 ± 0.2 for C. crispus against 1.1 ± 0.3 for M. stellatus, with errors computed from the averaging of five replicates from different fronds. Thus, one relies on extracting the polysaccharide from the seaweed and analyzing by 1H NMR the KI which are soluble in water to compute such ratios. A nice example of such exercise can be found in van de Velde et al. (2005) where three seaweed species harvested on the Portuguese coast showed K over I ratios ranging from 0.02 to 1. Figure 2.1 Chemical structure of disaccharide units of kappa-carrageenan (K), iota-carrageenan (I) mu-carrageenan (M), and nu-carrageenan (N) which are the building blocks of the gelling hybrid carrageenan KI and KIMN. The gelling mechanisms for K and I are depicted together with the block copolymer structure of KI and KIMN. Figure 2.2 DRIFT spectra of Gigartinales and of commercial carrageenan. From bottom to top: kappa-carrageenan, iota-carrageenan, Condrus crispus (frond of a female gametophyte), and Mastocarpus stellatus (frond of a female gametophyte). Vertical lines indicate the bands assigned to galactose (975 cm- 1), 3,6-anhydrogalactose—DA (930 cm- 1), the sulfate group on the fourth carbon of the galactose—G4S (845 cm- 1), and the sulfate group on the second carbon of the 3,6-anhydrogalactose—DA2S (805 cm- 1). The latter band is specific to iota-carrageenan. 2.2 Hybrid carrageenan macromolecular structure
The chemical structure of hybrid carrageenan has been vividly debated between two schools, and it is the author's opinion that the issue has been only recently solved by the publication of two critical papers (Guibet et al., 2008; van de Velde, Peppelman,...