Kim Marine Carbohydrates: Fundamentals and Applications, Part B

1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-12-800365-7
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band Volume 73, 248 Seiten

Reihe: Advances in Food and Nutrition Research

Marine Carbohydrates: Fundamentals and Applications brings together the diverse range of research in this important area which leads to clinical and industrialized products. The volume, number 73, focuses on marine carbohydrates in isolation, biological, and biomedical applications and provides the latest trends and developments on marine carbohydrates. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research recognizes the integral relationship between the food and nutritional sciences and brings together outstanding and comprehensive reviews that highlight this relationship. Volumes provide those in academia and industry with the latest information on emerging research in these constantly evolving sciences. - Includes the isolation techniques for the exploration of the marine habitat for novel polysaccharides - Discusses biological applications such as antioxidant, antiallergic, antidiabetic, antiobesity and antiviral activity of marine carbohydrates - Provides an insight into present trends and approaches for marine carbohydrates

Autoren/Hrsg.

Kim, Se-Kwon

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Marine Carbohydrates: Fundamentals and Applications, Part B;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Contents;6
5;Contributors;10
6;Preface;12
7;Chapter One: Marine-Derived Polysaccharides for Regulation of Allergic Responses;14
7.1;1. Introduction;15
7.2;2. Marine Polysaccharides;16
7.2.1;2.1. Alginate;16
7.2.2;2.2. Porphyran;17
7.2.3;2.3. Fucoidans;17
7.2.4;2.4. Chitin and its derivatives;18
7.3;3. Pharmacological Properties of Marine Polysaccharides for Modulation of Allergic Responses;19
7.3.1;3.1. Alginic acid;19
7.3.2;3.2. Porphyran;20
7.3.3;3.3. Fucoidans;20
7.3.4;3.4. Chitin;21
7.3.5;3.5. Chitosan nanoparticles;22
7.3.6;3.6. Chitooligosaccharides;23
7.4;4. Conclusion;23
7.5;References;24
8;Chapter Two: Antioxidant Effects of Chitin, Chitosan, and Their Derivatives;28
8.1;1. Introduction;28
8.2;2. Antioxidants and Oxidative Stress;30
8.3;3. Antioxidant Activity of Chitin, Chitosan, and Their Derivatives;30
8.3.1;3.1. Antioxidant activity of chitin and chitosan;30
8.3.2;3.2. Antioxidant activity of chito-oligomers and its derivatives;35
8.4;4. Conclusion;39
8.5;Acknowledgments;40
8.6;References;40
9;Chapter Three: Antidiabetic Activities of Chitosan and Its Derivatives: A Mini Review;46
9.1;1. Introduction;46
9.2;2. Derivatization;48
9.3;3. Antidiabetics and Antiobesity Applications;49
9.3.1;3.1. Indirect activity;49
9.3.2;3.2. Direct activity;51
9.4;4. Conclusion;54
9.5;References;54
10;Chapter Four: Role of Alginate in Bone Tissue Engineering;58
10.1;1. Introduction;59
10.2;2. Alginate General Properties;59
10.2.1;2.1. Structure;59
10.2.2;2.2. Molecular weight and solubility;60
10.2.3;2.3. Biocompatibility;61
10.3;3. Tissue Engineering;61
10.3.1;3.1. Bone TE;61
10.4;4. Alginate in Bone TE;62
10.4.1;4.1. Alginate scaffolds in bone TE;62
10.4.2;4.2. Alginate hydrogels in bone TE;65
10.5;5. Future Prospects;66
10.6;6. Conclusion;67
10.7;Acknowledgments;67
10.8;References;67
11;Chapter Five: Chitin and Chitosan Composites for Bone Tissue Regeneration;72
11.1;1. Introduction;73
11.2;2. Naturally Occurring Biopolymers;73
11.2.1;2.1. Chitin;73
11.2.2;2.2. Chitosan;74
11.3;3. Tissue Engineering Applications of Chitin and Chitosan;74
11.4;4. Applications of Chitin and Chitosan for Bone Tissue Engineering;77
11.5;5. Future Prospects;89
11.6;6. Conclusions;89
11.7;Acknowledgments;89
11.8;References;89
12;Chapter Six: Chemical Modification of Chitosan for Efficient Gene Therapy;96
12.1;1. Introduction;97
12.2;2. Ligand Modification for Specific Cell Targeting;98
12.2.1;2.1. Galactose ligand modification;98
12.2.2;2.2. Folate ligand modification;99
12.2.3;2.3. Mannose ligand modification;101
12.2.4;2.4. Hyaluronic acid ligand modification;103
12.3;3. Stimuli-Response Modification for Enhancement of Transfection Efficiency;103
12.3.1;3.1. pH-sensitive modification;103
12.3.1.1;3.1.1. Imidazole modification;104
12.3.1.2;3.1.2. PEI modification;105
12.3.2;3.2. Thiolated modification;105
12.3.3;3.3. Amino acid modification;107
12.3.4;3.4. Magnetic modification;107
12.4;4. Penetrating Modification;108
12.4.1;4.1. Brain-blood barrier penetrating modification;108
12.4.2;4.2. Cell penetration peptide modification;109
12.4.3;4.3. Penetration of nuclear membrane;109
12.5;5. Conclusion;110
12.6;References;110
13;Chapter Seven: Marine Carbohydrates of Wastewater Treatment;116
13.1;1. Introduction;117
13.1.1;1.1. Sources of wastewater;118
13.1.2;1.2. Composition of wastewater;118
13.1.3;1.3. Wastewater treatment;120
13.2;2. Materials Used for Wastewater Treatment;123
13.2.1;2.1. Chitin;124
13.2.2;2.2. Chitosan;125
13.2.3;2.3. Alginate;127
13.2.4;2.4. Agar;129
13.2.5;2.5. Carrageenan;130
13.3;3. Application of Marine Polysaccharides in Wastewater Treatment;131
13.3.1;3.1. Chitin;131
13.3.2;3.2. Chitosan;133
13.3.3;3.3. Alginate;136
13.3.4;3.4. Carrageenan and agar;139
13.4;4. Advantages and Possible Drawbacks of Using Marine Polysaccharide-Based Materials for Adsorption;140
13.4.1;4.1. Advantages;140
13.4.2;4.2. Limitations;141
13.5;5. Future Prospects;141
13.6;6. Conclusions;142
13.7;Acknowledgments;142
13.8;References;142
14;Chapter Eight: Industrial Applications of Marine Carbohydrates;158
14.1;1. Introduction;159
14.1.1;1.1. Marine carbohydrates;159
14.1.2;1.2. General structures and terminology;160
14.1.3;1.3. Production of carbohydrates by marine organisms;161
14.1.4;1.4. Analysis of marine carbohydrates;162
14.1.4.1;1.4.1. Agar;162
14.1.4.2;1.4.2. Alginates;163
14.1.4.3;1.4.3. Carrageenan;164
14.1.4.4;1.4.4. Chitin and chitosan;166
14.1.5;1.5. Carbohydrates in sediments;169
14.2;2. Applications of Marine Carbohydrates;169
14.2.1;2.1. In cosmetics;170
14.2.2;2.2. In food and agricultural field;170
14.2.3;2.3. In pharmaceutics;173
14.2.4;2.4. In biotechnology and microbiology;179
14.2.5;2.5. In treatment of industrial effluent;180
14.3;3. Future Directions for Research;183
14.4;4. Conclusion;184
14.5;Acknowledgments;184
14.6;References;184
15;Chapter Nine: Nutraceutical and Pharmacological Implications of Marine Carbohydrates;196
15.1;1. Introduction;196
15.2;2. Marine Carbohydrate Sources;197
15.3;3. Marine Carbohydrates as Nutraceuticals;201
15.4;4. Marine Carbohydrates as Pharmaceuticals;202
15.5;5. Conclusion;204
15.6;References;204
15.7;Further Reading;208
16;Chapter Ten: Pharmaceutical, Cosmeceutical, and Traditional Applications of Marine Carbohydrates;210
16.1;1. Introduction;211
16.1.1;1.1. Resource of marine carbohydrate;211
16.1.2;1.2. Marine carbohydrate market value;212
16.1.3;1.3. Special areas of conservation;214
16.2;2. Pharmaceutical Products and Biological Application;215
16.2.1;2.1. Blood coagulation system;216
16.2.2;2.2. Anticancer activity;217
16.2.3;2.3. Antioxidant activity;218
16.2.4;2.4. Antiviral activity;220
16.2.5;2.5. Antilipidemic activity;221
16.2.6;2.6. Immunomodulating effect;221
16.3;3. Cosmeceutical Products and Functional Applications;222
16.3.1;3.1. Fucoidan;222
16.3.2;3.2. Carrageenan;225
16.3.3;3.3. Alginates;226
16.4;4. Marine Food and Traditional Application;226
16.4.1;4.1. Marine food carbohydrates and fibers derived as an antioxidants and their antioxidative activity;226
16.4.1.1;4.1.1. Chitooligosaccharide derivatives;227
16.4.1.2;4.1.2. Sulfated polysaccharides;227
16.4.1.3;4.1.3. Carotenoids;227
16.4.2;4.2. Thickeners, stabilizers, and emulsifiers;228
16.5;5. Conclusion;228
16.6;Acknowledgment;229
16.7;References;229
17;Chapter Eleven: Algal and Microbial Exopolysaccharides: New Insights as Biosurfactants and Bioemulsifiers;234
17.1;1. Introduction;235
17.2;2. Defining Biosurfactants;237
17.2.1;2.1. Definition and characteristics;237
17.3;3. Microalgae: The New and Novel Bioemulsifiers;239
17.4;4. Biosynthesis Exemplified in Diatoms and Cyanobacteria;239
17.5;5. Cyanobacteria: A Prolific Source of EPS. The Case of Emulcyan;242
17.6;6. Diatoms: Photosynthetic Production of Complex EPSs;243
17.7;7. EPS: The Genesis in Building Biofilms;246
17.8;8. Seaweed Polysaccharides;247
17.9;9. Biosurfactants/Bioemulsifiers in Foods. The Marine Alternative;250
17.9.1;9.1. Probiotics EPSs;251
17.10;10. Biosurfactants for Sustainable Bioremediation;252
17.11;11. The Biosurfactants from Extreme Environments and Deep Sea;255
17.11.1;11.1. EPS from the deep sea;257
17.11.2;11.2. Polysaccharides from marine animals;259
17.11.3;11.3. Marine sources of EPS: The highest source for foods and dietary fibers;260
17.12;12. Expectatives and Concluding Remarks;261
17.13;References;263
17.14;Further Reading;270
18;Chapter Twelve: Complex Carbohydrates as a Possible Source of High Energy to Formulate Functional Feeds;272
18.1;1. Introduction;273
18.2;2. Carbohydrates;274
18.3;3. Complex Carbohydrates;274
18.4;4. Oligosaccharides and NSP;276
18.5;5. Polysaccharides;279
18.5.1;5.1. Terrestrial polysaccharides;280
18.5.2;5.2. Marine polysaccharides;281
18.6;6. Enzymes and Digestibility;283
18.7;7. Prebiotic Ingredients;287
18.8;8. Probiotic Bacteria;289
18.9;9. Functional Feeds;290
18.9.1;9.1. Definition;291
18.9.2;9.2. Study cases, functional benefits, and usage suggestions;292
18.9.2.1;9.2.1. Research in pigs;292
18.9.2.2;9.2.2. Research in poultry;293
18.9.2.3;9.2.3. Research in fish;294
18.9.2.4;9.2.4. Research in shrimps;295
18.10;References;296
18.11;Further Reading;301
19;Index;302

Leseproben

Chapter Two Antioxidant Effects of Chitin, Chitosan, and Their Derivatives
Dai-Hung Ngo*; Se-Kwon Kim*,†,1    * Marine Bioprocess Research Center, Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea
† Department of Chemistry, Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea
1 Corresponding author: email address: [e-mail] Abstract
Chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives are considered to promote diverse activities, including antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, antitumor and anticancer, antimicrobial, hypocholesterolemic, and antidiabetic effects, one of the most crucial of which is the antioxidant effect. By modulating and improving physiological functions, chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives may provide novel therapeutic applications for the prevention or treatment of chronic diseases. Antioxidant activity of chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives can be attributed to in vitro and in vivo free radical-scavenging activities. Antioxidant effect of chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives may be used as functional ingredients in food formulations to promote consumer health and to improve the shelf life of food products. This chapter presents an overview of the antioxidant activity of chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives with the potential utilization in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Keywords Chitin Chitosan Chitosan derivatives Antioxidant Free radical scavenging 1 Introduction
Chitin is the second most abundant biopolymer on earth after cellulose and one of the most abundant polysaccharides. It is a glycan of ß(1 ? 4)-linked N-acetylglucosamine units, and it is widely distributed in crustaceans and insects as the protective exoskeleton and cell walls of most fungi. Chitin is usually prepared from the shells of crustaceans such as crab, shrimp, and crawfish (Jayakumara, Prabaharan, Nair, & Tamura, 2010; Muzzarelli, 1997). Chitosan is a natural nontoxic biopolymer produced by alkaline deacetylation of chitin. Chitin and chitosan are insoluble in water as well as in most organic solvents, which is the major limiting factor for their utilization in living systems. Hence, it is important to produce soluble chitin or chitosan by several methods such as acidic and enzymatic hydrolysis. Chito-oligomers (COSs) are chitosan derivatives (polycationic polymers comprised principally of glucosamine units) and can be generated via either chemical or enzymatic hydrolysis of chitosan. COSs are of great interest in pharmaceutical and medicinal applications due to their noncytotoxic and high water-soluble properties. Various activities of COSs are affected by degree of deacetylation (DD), molecular weight (MW), or chain length (Jayakumar et al., 2010; Kim, Ngo, & Rajapakse, 2006; Muzzarelli, Stanic, & Ramos, 1999; Razdan & Pettersson, 1994). Chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives have important biological properties in medicinal and pharmaceutical applications such as antioxidative (Aytekin, Morimura, & Kida, 2011; Kim & Ngo, 2013; Ying, Xiong, Wang, Sun, & Liu, 2011), antiallergy (Vo, Kim, Ngo, Kong, & Kim, 2012; Vo, Kong, & Kim, 2011; Vo, Ngo, & Kim, 2012), anti-inflammatory (Lee, Senevirathne, Ahn, Kim, & Je, 2009; Pangestuti, Bak, & Kim, 2011), antihuman immunodeficiency virus (Vo & Kim, 2010), anticoagulant (Yang et al., 2012), adipogenesis inhibitory (Cho et al., 2008), antitumor and anticancer (Cho, Park, Seo, & Yoo, 2009; Shen, Chen, Chan, Jeng, & Wang, 2009; Toshkova et al., 2010), antibacterial (Sajomsang, Gonil, & Saesoo, 2009; Xu, Xin, Li, Huang, & Zhou, 2010; Yang et al., 2010; Yang, Chou, & Li, 2005; Zhong, Li, Xing, & Liu, 2009), antihypertensive (Ngo, Qian, Je, Kim, & Kim, 2008; Qian, Eom, Ryu, & Kim, 2010), immunostimulant (Jeon & Kim, 2001), anti-Alzheimer’s (Cho, Kim, Ahn, & Je, 2011a; Yoon, Ngo, & Kim, 2009), calcium and ferrous binding (Bravo-Osuna, Millotti, Vauthier, & Ponchel, 2007; Liao, Shieh, Chang, & Chien, 2007), and hypocholesterolemic (Zhang et al., 2010; Zhou, Xia, Zhang, & Yu, 2006) properties. By modulating and improving physiological functions, chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives may provide novel therapeutic applications for the prevention or treatment of chronic diseases. This chapter centers on chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives with antioxidant activity relevant to human health benefits. 2 Antioxidants and Oxidative Stress
Humans are impacted by many free radicals both from inside our body and surrounding environment, particularly reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated in living organisms during metabolism. It is produced in the forms of H2O2, superoxide anion (2•-) and hydroxyl (•OH) radicals. In addition, oxidative stress may cause inadvertent enzyme activation and oxidative damage to cellular systems. Free radicals attack macromolecules such as DNA, proteins, and lipids, leading to many health disorders including hypertensive, cardiovascular, inflammatory, aging, diabetes mellitus, and neurodegenerative and cancer diseases. Antioxidants may have a positive effect on human health since they can protect human body against deterioration by free radicals (Butterfield et al., 2006; Dhalla, Temsah, & Netticadan, 2000; Fubini & Hubbard, 2003; Maulik & Das, 2002; Ngo, Wijesekara, Vo, Ta, & Kim, 2011; Seven, Guzel, Aslan, & Hamuryudan, 2008). Oxidation in foods affects lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. However, lipid oxidation is the main cause of deterioration of food quality, leading to rancidity and shortening of shelf life. Oxidation of proteins in foods is influenced by lipid oxidation, where lipid oxidation products react with proteins causing their oxidation. Carbohydrates are also susceptible to oxidation, but they are less sensitive than lipids and proteins (Bernardini et al., 2011). Therefore, many synthetic commercial antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene, butylated hydroxyanisole, tert-butylhydroquinone, and propyl gallate have been used to retard the oxidation and peroxidation processes in food and pharmaceutical industries. However, the use of these synthetic antioxidants must be under strict regulation due to potential health hazards (Blunt, Copp, Munro, Northcote, & Prinsep, 2006). Therefore, the use of natural antioxidants available in food and other biological substances has attracted significant interest due to their presumed safety and nutritional and therapeutic values (Ajila, Naidu, Bhat, & Prasada Rao, 2007). 3 Antioxidant Activity of Chitin, Chitosan, and Their Derivatives
3.1 Antioxidant activity of chitin and chitosan
Chitin oligomers (NA-COSs) are hydrolytic products of chitin using chemical, physical, or enzymatic agents and are water soluble. Therefore, NA-COSs can be used easily both in vitro and in vivo. The cellular antioxidant effects of NA-COSs (229.21–593.12 Da) produced by acidic hydrolysis of crab chitin were determined by Ngo, Kim, and Kim (2008). The inhibitory effects of NA-COSs on myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in human myeloid cells (HL-60) and oxidation of protein and DNA in mouse macrophages (RAW 264.7) were identified. Furthermore, their direct radical scavenging effect and intracellular glutathione (GSH) level were significantly increased in a time-dependent manner. These results suggest that NA-COSs act as a potent antioxidant in live cells. In addition, Ngo, Lee, Kim, and Kim (2009) produced two kinds of NA-COSs with different MWs. Two kinds of NA-COSs with MW of 1–3 kDa (NA-COS 1–3 kDa) and below 1 kDa (NA-COS < 1 kDa) were obtained using an ultrafiltration membrane system. They exhibited an inhibitory effect against DNA and protein oxidation. Furthermore, intracellular GSH level and direct intracellular radical scavenging effect were significantly increased in a time-dependent manner in RAW 264.7 cells. In particular, NA-COS of 1–3 kDa was more effective than NA-COS < 1 kDa in protein oxidation and production of intracellular free radicals. These results suggest that NA-COSs act as potential scavengers against oxidative stress in cells. The antioxidant effect of chitosan was studied in vitro and in vivo (Liu, 2008). Chitosan at an addition of 0.02% had antioxidant activities in lard and crude rapeseed oil, but the activity was less than ascorbic acid. When the addition was increased, chitosan and ascorbic acid had similar activities; chitosan could significantly reduce serum free fatty acid and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations and increase antioxidant enzymes activities such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), indicating that chitosan regulated the antioxidant enzymes activities and decreased lipid peroxidation. In the food industry, chitosan...