Nayar Origins and Phylogeny of Rices

1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-12-417189-3
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 324 Seiten

Origin and Phylogeny of Rices provides an evolutionary understanding of the origin, spread, and extent of genetic diversity in rice. This single volume is the first to review and synthesize the significant work done in this area in the last 30 years.Rice is the most important food crop of humankind. It provides more energy and also forms the staple food for more humans than any other food plant. This book assesses multiple aspects of this crucial crop in chapters devoted to rice's history and spread, phylogeny of the genus Oryza, Oryza species and their interrelationships, and the origins of west African and Asian rice. - Offers an interpretive review of the latest research on this vital crop - Guides further research and understanding with an extensive list of references - Enhances the presentation of concepts via illustrations throughout

Emeritus Scientists, Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Trivandrum, Kerala India*Six years as Emeritus Scientist of the Dept. of Science and Technology (Government of India) and Indian Council of Agricultural Research: Working on origin and diversity of rice and aroids*Seventeen years as Director of 3 crop/cropping systems-based ICAR Institutes (Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod; Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla; Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum) and concurrently Founder-Director for 4 years*Five years as Joint Director in Independent Charge of CPCRI Regional Station, Vittal*Approx. severl years as Section/Division head in Central Potato Research Institute and Central Rice Institute

Autoren/Hrsg.

Nayar, N. M.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Origins and Phylogeny of Rices;4
3;Copyright;5
4;CONTENTS;6
5;FOREWORD;8
6;PREFACE;14
7;ABBREVIATIONS;16
7.1;Prehistory Timeline;17
7.2;Geological Time Scale;18
8;Chapter 1 - Rice in the World;20
8.1;1. IMPORTANCE;20
8.2;2. SPECIAL FEATURES OF RICE PRODUCTION;20
8.3;3. PRODUCTION AND AVAILABILITY OF RICE;21
8.4;4. RICE AS A STAPLE FOOD;27
8.5;5. RICE AND CULTURE;30
8.6;6. RICE AND NUTRITION;32
9;Chapter 2 - History and Early Spread of Rice;34
9.1;1. RICE IN EAST ASIA;34
9.2;2. RICE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND OCEANIA;37
9.3;3. RICE IN SOUTH ASIA;39
9.4;4. RICE IN CENTRAL AND WEST ASIA;42
9.5;5. RICE IN EUROPE;45
9.6;6. RICE IN AFRICA;48
9.7;7. RICE IN THE AMERICAS;53
10;Chapter 3 - Phylogeny of the Genus Oryza L;56
10.1;1. INTRODUCTION;56
10.2;2. CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMAE;56
10.3;3. DIVERSIFICATION OF GRAMINEAE;57
10.4;4. CLASSIFICATION OF GRAMINEAE;61
10.5;5. SUBFAMILY EHRHARTOIDEAE;64
10.6;6. TRIBE ORYZEAE;66
10.7;7. PANGAEA, LAURASIA, AND GONDWANA;73
10.8;8. PHYLOGENETIC TREES;74
10.9;9. MOLECULAR CLOCKS;75
11;Chapter 4 - Oryza Species and Their Interrelationships;78
11.1;1. INTRODUCTION;78
11.2;2. SUBGENERIC CLASSIFICATION;83
11.3;3. SPECIES COMPLEXES;84
11.4;4. SPECIES IN THE GENUS;85
11.5;5. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES;110
12;Chapter 5 - The Origin of African Rice;136
12.1;1. INTRODUCTION;136
12.2;2. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF WEST AFRICA;140
12.3;3. ECOSYSTEMS OF WEST AFRICA;140
12.4;4. THE HOLOCENE CLIMATE IN SOUTH SAHARA AND THE SAHEL;143
12.5;5. THE HISTORY OF AFRICAN RICE;146
12.6;6. EAST AFRICA AND MADAGASCAR;149
12.7;7. THE RICE ARCHAEOLOGY OF AFRICA;152
12.8;8. RICE CULTURE IN WEST AFRICA;158
12.9;9. WILD RICES OF AFRICA;163
12.10;10. CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN RICE;163
12.11;11. THE FALL OF AFRICAN RICE;164
12.12;12. THE GENETIC TRANSFORMATION OF AFRICAN RICE;164
12.13;13. THE ORIGIN OF AFRICAN RICE;166
12.14;14. TIME AND PLACE OF ORIGIN;183
13;Chapter 6 - The Origin of Asian Rice;188
13.1;1. INTRODUCTION;188
13.2;2. PAST STUDIES;188
13.3;3. LATE PLEISTOCENE–HOLOCENE CLIMATE;192
13.4;4. ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES;194
13.5;5. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION;215
14;EPILOGUE;274
15;REFERENCES;292
16;INDEX;316

Leseproben

Foreword

We owe a deep debt of gratitude to Dr N. M. Nayar for taking the trouble to write an authoritative book on the Origins and Phylogeny of Rices. Dr Nayar is one of our most eminent and well informed rice experts. He has also devoted his life to unraveling the phylogeny of crops from a global perspective. His book covers all the important rice growing areas and throws much light on the origins of the Asian and West African rices.

I would like to highlight some aspects of the yield revolution in rice which we have witnessed during the last sixty years, starting with the indica–japonica hybridization program started at the Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack in the early 1950s.

The yield of indica rice remained stagnant for a long time. In contrast, the japonica varieties of rice cultivated in Japan and also in northern latitudes yielded two to three times more than the indica rices even before World War II. The reason for this is the ability of the japonica varieties to utilize more nutrients and convert them into grains. For example, the rice plant requires about 20 kg of nitrogen and appropriate quantities of other nutrients for producing a yield of 1 tonne of rice. The indica varieties which were cultivated before World War II had thin straw and therefore tended to lodge when mineral fertilizer was applied. To overcome this problem of lodging, an indica–japonica hybridization program was initiated in 1952 at the Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, at the insistence of the late Dr K Ramaiah. I worked on this project for some time at Cuttack. For a variety of reasons the indica–japonica hybridization program did not yield the anticipated results. However, a few good varieties like ADT-27 in Tamil Nadu and Mashuri in Malaysia came out of this program. In the mid-1960s semi-dwarf rice varieties like Taichung Native 1 from Taiwan, which had the Dee-Gee-Woo Gen gene for dwarfing, became available. This made the indica–japonica hybridization program less important from the point of view of breeding fertilizer responsive varieties of rice. Soon, very high yielding rice varieties like IR8 became available from the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines. In 1968, the rice revolution began in all the indica rice growing countries. In India for example, rice production rose from 20 million tonnes in 1947 to over 100 million tonnes in 2012.

The importance of rice cultivation will grow with the onset of the era of climate change. Rice is much more resilient to climatic factors as will be evident from the fact that rice is cultivated under a wide range of altitudes and latitudes, beginning with below sea level farming in the Kuttanad region of Kerala to nearly 3,000 meters altitude in the Himalayas and J&K. There are also over 150,000 varieties of rice available globally. The IRRI Gene Bank has over 110,000 accessions. Therefore, rice will prove to be an important climate saviour crop and its importance to human food security will grow. It will also play an important role in nutrition, since already varieties rich in iron, zinc, and vitamin A are available from the biofortification programs in progress in different countries. MSSRF has iron-rich varieties of rice developed by genetic modification. Therefore there are uncommon opportunities for combining yield and quality in rice varieties.

At the moment, the semi-dwarf varieties capable of responding to good soil fertility and water management are mainly grown in irrigated or high rainfall/lowland conditions. Hybrid rice was introduced in China in the 1970s based on a male sterile line identified on Hainan Island. It is generally believed that hybrids yield 15–20 percent more than varieties. A major problem in popularizing hybrid rice is seed production. Unless seed yield is increased to about 3 tonnes per hectare, the net gain from the cultivation of hybrid rice will be poor. China has most of its irrigated area under hybrid rice because they have produced a wide range of high yielding hybrids and also developed efficient hybrid seed production techniques. In India, which has the largest area under rice (nearly 45 million hectares), there are several hybrids available in the market, but they are yet to become popular because of poor cooking quality. Culinary qualities are as important as yield, as will be clear from the high premium paid to Basmati rice. Pusa basmati 1121 fetches a very high price in the national and international markets.

The regions where there are significant gaps between the potential and actual yields of rice are South Asia and West Africa. The NERICA rices developed in West Africa have, to some extent, helped to improve the yield per hectare. In India, the average yield of rice is less than 50 percent of the potential. The monsoon and the market are two major determinants of the economic success of rice farming. Both require greater attention.

The yield gap may be due to technological, ecological, or economic or social reasons. A “bridging the yield gap movement” should be launched with concurrent attention to the following five components of successful rice farming:

• Soil healthcare and enhancement

• Water management including the application of System of Rice Intensification (SRI) techniques

• Technology and inputs

• Credit and insurance

• Assured and remunerative marketing

Genetic engineering is largely being used for breeding rice varieties resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses. Varieties like Golden Rice rich in vitamin A have also been produced by genetic modification. Many of these attributes can also be transferred to rice varieties through molecular markers. There are inherent problems with reference to public acceptance of GM rice. Therefore, it will be better to achieve the same results through molecular marker-based selection.

Irrigation water will be a great constraint in the coming decades and centuries. That is why there is interest in techniques like SRI which help to reduce irrigation water need by about 50 percent. There are also experiments for raising more crop per drop of water. There are great opportunities for improving water use efficiency. For example, when I was at the IRRI, I held a joint discussion with WHO on preventing rice fields becoming breeding grounds for mosquitoes. We concluded that one way of controlling mosquito breeding in rice fields is alternate drying and wetting. This does not affect yield. The rice plant does not need standing water all the time.

There are large numbers of farming systems being developed with rice as the principal crop. The rice–wheat rotation in the Punjab has led to the depletion of the water table. Therefore, it will be appropriate to have a 3 or 5 year rotation in which pulses and millets like iron-rich bajra are included. Current research in rice farming systems aims to integrate the principles of ecology, economics, employment, energy requirement, and social and gender equity.

The initial work which led to the rice revolution was done in China and Taiwan (China). China gave to the rice world both semi-dwarf and photo-insensitive varieties as well as hybrids. The Chinese material was taken and developed further at the IRRI. The best work on dwarf basmati rices has been done at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. The IRRI has played an important role in germplasm collection, conservation and distribution and human resource development.

National and international research systems should develop symbiotic relationships. The stronger the national research system, the greater will be the opportunity for deriving benefits from international research. Therefore, the foundation for sustainable progress is the existence of a strong multi-disciplinary national research system. Also, it is important to ensure that public good research receives priority. This means that good varieties should have precedence over hybrids, since farmers will have to buy the hybrid seeds every year.

The rice revolution in India, as well as the other countries, has its roots in synergy among scientific know-how, political do-how, and farmers’ enthusiasm. Public policy should bring about synergy between technology and public policy. For example, in the rice–wheat rotation areas of the Punjab and northwest India, free electricity should not be provided for pumping groundwater. Subsidies of this kind can be called “subsidies for ecocides’’, i.e., ecological suicide. Since rice is going to be a climate resilient and climate smart crop, it is essential that sustainable rice farming using the ever-green revolution pathway (i.e., increase in productivity in perpetuity without associated ecological harm) is promoted. More than subsidies, services are urgently needed, as for example, the provision of appropriate farm machinery on the basis of a custom-hire approach. Public policies in the flood-prone plains of Assam should aim to make the non-flood season (i.e., from Nov–May), the main rice farming season; all that this will require is the provision of funds for shallow tube wells. This will help to lower the water table during the rabi and boro seasons, thereby allowing more absorption and storage of water during the kharif season. Such an approach has been referred to by Roger Revelle as the Ganges Water Machine, which can ensure water for raising good rice crops, and at the same time help to prevent floods.

There is a saying that rice is life in many parts of Asia. In the emerging era of climate change, rice will probably gain...