Whitaker Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-0-08-096499-7
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 632 Seiten, Web PDF

This volume descibes, in up-to-date terminology and authoritative interpretation, the field of neurolinguistics, the science concerned with the neural mechanisms underlying the comprehension, production and abstract knowledge of spoken, signed or written language. An edited anthology of 165 articles from the award-winning Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics 2nd edition, Encyclopedia of Neuroscience 4th Edition and Encyclopedia of the Neorological Sciences and Neurological Disorders, it provides the most comprehensive one-volume reference solution for scientists working with language and the brain ever published.
* Authoritative review of this dynamic field placed in an interdisciplinary context
* Approximately 165 articles by leaders in the field
* Compact and affordable single-volume format

Autoren/Hrsg.

Whitaker, Harry A.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;The Editor;6
5;Coordinating Editors;8
6;Contents;10
7;Subject Classification;16
8;Introduction;20
9;Contributors;22
10;List of Abbreviations;26
11;A;32
11.1;Agnosia;32
11.1.1;Further Reading;33
11.2;Agrammatism I, Process Approaches;34
11.2.1;Agrammatism in Comprehension;34
11.2.1.1;The Mapping Hypothesis;34
11.2.1.2;The Resource Limitation Hypothesis;35
11.2.1.3;The Timing Hypothesis;36
11.2.2;Agrammatism in Production;37
11.2.2.1;Variability of Symptoms;37
11.2.2.2;The Timing Hypothesis;38
11.2.2.3;The Ellipsis Hypothesis;39
11.2.3;Conclusion;39
11.2.4;Bibliography;33
11.3;Agrammatism II, Linguistic Approaches;40
11.3.1;Introduction;40
11.3.2;Linguistic Models of Agrammatism;40
11.3.2.1;Comprehension;41
11.3.2.2;The Trace-Deletion Hypothesis (TDH);41
11.3.2.3;The Double-Dependency Hypothesis (DDH);41
11.3.2.4;Production;42
11.3.2.4.1;Hagiwara's Model;42
11.3.2.4.2;Friedmann's Model;42
11.3.3;What Does the Study of Agrammatism Tell Us about Brains or about Language?;42
11.3.3.1;What Does Evidence Organized by Linguistic Models of Agrammatism Reveal about Brains?;42
11.3.3.2;What Does Evidence Organized by Linguistic Models of Agrammatism Reveal about Language?;43
11.3.4;Conclusion;44
11.3.5;Bibliography;44
11.4;Agrammatism;45
11.4.1;Interpretations;46
11.4.2;Causes and Anatomical Correlates;47
11.4.3;Further Reading;48
11.5;Agraphia;48
11.5.1;Further Reading;50
11.6;Alzheimer's Disease;50
11.6.1;Epidemiology and Genetics;50
11.6.2;Pathology;51
11.6.3;Pathogenesis;52
11.6.4;Diagnosis;52
11.6.5;Treatment;53
11.6.6;Further Reading;54
11.7;Amnesia, Functional;54
11.7.1;Introduction;54
11.7.2;Clinical Characteristics of the Patient with Functional Amnesia;55
11.7.2.1;The Clinical Picture of the Patient;55
11.7.2.2;Risk and Precipitating Factors;55
11.7.2.3;Clinical Course;56
11.7.2.4;Laboratory Tests;56
11.7.2.5;Differential Diagnosis;56
11.7.3;Neuropsychological Findings in Patients with Functional Amnesia;56
11.7.3.1;Retrograde Amnesia;57
11.7.3.2;Anterograde Amnesia;59
11.7.4;Etiology of Functional Amnesia;60
11.7.5;Evaluation and Treatment of the Patient with Functional Amnesia;60
11.7.6;Further Reading;61
11.8;Amnesia, Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory;61
11.8.1;Introduction;61
11.8.2;Functional Amnesia;61
11.8.3;Etiology of Neurological Amnesia;62
11.8.4;Anatomy;62
11.8.5;The Nature of Amnesia;62
11.8.5.1;Anterograde Amnesia;63
11.8.5.2;Retrograde Amnesia;63
11.8.5.3;Spatial Memory;64
11.8.5.4;Nondeclarative Memory;64
11.8.6;Summary;65
11.8.7;Further Reading;66
11.8.8;Relevant Websites;66
11.9;Amusia;66
11.9.1;Further Reading;67
11.10;Anatomical Asymmetries Versus Variability of Language Areas of the Brain;68
11.10.1;Introduction;68
11.10.2;Individual Variability;68
11.10.2.1;Overall Brain Volume;68
11.10.2.2;Gyral Patterns and Regional Variability;69
11.10.2.3;White Matter Tracts;69
11.10.3;Brain Asymmetries;69
11.10.3.1;Subcortical Asymmetries;70
11.10.3.2;White Matter Tract Asymmetries;70
11.10.3.3;Asymmetry in Nonhumans;70
11.10.4;Conclusions;70
11.10.5;Bibliography;50
11.11;Angular Gyrus Syndrome;71
11.11.1;Components of the Angular Gyrus Syndrome;72
11.11.1.1;Extrasylvian (Transcortical) Sensory Aphasia;72
11.11.1.2;Alexia with Agraphia (Parietal-Temporal Alexia);72
11.11.1.3;Acalculia;72
11.11.1.4;Left-Right Confusion;72
11.11.1.5;Finger Agnosia;72
11.11.2;Gerstmann's Syndrome;72
11.11.3;Further Reading;73
11.12;Anomia;73
11.12.1;Anomia in Aphasia;73
11.12.2;Naming;75
11.12.3;Word Fluency;75
11.12.4;Anomic Aphasia;75
11.12.5;Anomia in Dementia;76
11.12.6;Anatomy of the Mental Lexicon;76
11.12.7;A Single Lexicon or Multiple Mental Representation of Names?;77
11.12.8;Further Reading;77
11.13;Anosognosia;77
11.13.1;Acknowledgments;79
11.13.2;Further Reading;80
11.14;Aphasia, Sudden and Progressive;80
11.14.1;Introduction;80
11.14.2;Clinical Examination;80
11.14.3;Aphasias of Cerebrovascular Origin;81
11.14.3.1;Wernicke's Aphasia;75
11.14.3.2;Broca's Aphasia;76
11.14.3.3;Global Aphasia;76
11.14.3.4;Conduction Aphasia;77
11.14.3.5;Nonfluent Transcortical Aphasia (Transcortical Motor Aphasia);82
11.14.3.6;Fluent Transcortical Aphasia (Transcortical Sensory Aphasia);82
11.14.3.7;Isolation Aphasia;82
11.14.3.8;Anomic Aphasia;82
11.14.3.9;Pure Word Deafness;82
11.14.3.10;Pure Alexia without Agraphia;82
11.14.4;Neurodegenerative Aphasia;83
11.14.4.1;Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis;83
11.14.4.2;Language in PPA;83
11.14.4.3;Pathophysiology;84
11.14.4.4;Neuropathology;84
11.14.5;Further Reading;84
11.15;Apraxia, Handedness and Language Laterality;85
11.15.1;Introduction;85
11.15.2;Definition;85
11.15.3;Testing for Apraxia;85
11.15.4;Subtypes of Apraxia;85
11.15.5;Prevalence;86
11.15.6;Cerebral Dominance for Motor Learning;86
11.15.7;Dissociation of Language and Praxis;87
11.15.8;Anatomical Correlates;87
11.15.9;Bibliography;87
11.16;Apraxia, Sensory System;88
11.16.1;Historical Background;88
11.16.2;Limb Apraxia Subtypes;88
11.16.2.1;LKA;88
11.16.2.2;IA;88
11.16.2.3;Conceptual Apraxia;89
11.16.2.4;IMA;89
11.16.2.5;Disconnection and Dissociation Apraxias;90
11.16.3;Outstanding Issues in Diagnosis of Apraxia Subtype;90
11.16.3.1;Relevance of Recognition and Imitation Deficits for Diagnosis of IMA versus IA or Conceptual Apraxia;90
11.16.3.2;Relationship of Object Knowledge to Gesture Representations;91
11.16.4;Functional Implications of Limb Apraxia;91
11.16.5;IMA in View of Recent Developments in the Motor Control Literature;91
11.16.5.1;Imitation;91
11.16.5.2;Object-Related Action;92
11.16.5.3;Spatiomotor Frames of Reference for Action;92
11.16.5.4;Feedforward and Feedback-Driven Processes in IMA;92
11.16.6;Treatment of Limb Apraxia;92
11.16.7;Testing for Limb Apraxia;93
11.16.8;Conclusions;93
11.16.9;Further Reading;93
11.17;Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD);94
11.17.1;Subtypes, Impairments, and Comorbidities;94
11.17.2;Assessment and Diagnosis;95
11.17.3;Prevalence and Developmental Course;95
11.17.4;Risk and Etiological Factors;95
11.17.5;Neurobiological Underpinnings;95
11.17.6;Prevention and Intervention;95
11.17.7;Conclusion;96
11.17.8;Further Reading;96
11.18;Auditory Cortex Structure and Circuitry;97
11.18.1;Introduction;97
11.18.2;Organization of Auditory Cortex;97
11.18.2.1;Thalamic Input;97
11.18.2.2;Area Parcellation;98
11.18.3;Connections of Auditory Cortex;99
11.18.3.1;Local Structure of Primary Auditory Cortex;99
11.18.3.2;Interconnections between Areas of Auditory Cortex;99
11.18.3.3;Cortical Projections Beyond Auditory Cortex;100
11.18.3.4;Projections to Subcortical Nuclei;100
11.18.3.5;Other Circuitry;101
11.18.4;Organization of Specialized Auditory Cortex: Echolocating Bats;101
11.18.5;Physiology of Unspecialized Auditory Cortex;101
11.18.6;Outstanding Questions;102
11.18.7;Further Reading;103
11.19;Autism and Asperger Syndrome, A Spectrum of Disability;103
11.19.1;Language in ASD and Asperger's Syndrome;104
11.19.2;Pragmatic Language;105
11.19.3;Prosody;105
11.19.4;Verbal Semantic Processing;105
11.19.5;Syntactic Aspect of Language;105
11.19.6;Theoretical Understanding of Autism;105
11.19.7;Treatment and Prognosis;106
11.19.8;Bibliography;66
12;B;108
12.1;Balint's Syndrome;108
12.1.1;Historical Perspective;108
12.1.2;Simultanagnosia;108
12.1.3;Ocular Apraxia;109
12.1.4;Optic Ataxia;109
12.1.5;Presentation and Etiology;109
12.1.6;Conclusion;110
12.1.7;Acknowledgments;110
12.1.8;Further Reading;110
12.2;Behavior, Neural Basis of;110
12.2.1;Frontal Subcortical Circuits;112
12.2.2;Limbic System;113
12.2.3;Neurochemistry;114
12.2.4;Clinical Syndromes;114
12.2.5;Conclusion;114
12.2.6;Further Reading;115
12.3;Behavior, Neuropathology of;115
12.3.1;Neuropathological Changes in the Elderly Human Brain;116
12.3.1.1;Neuron Numbers;116
12.3.1.2;Dendritic Changes;116
12.3.1.3;Axonal and Synaptic Changes;116
12.3.1.4;Cell Body Changes;116
12.3.2;Alzheimer's Disease;116
12.3.2.1;NFTs;117
12.3.2.2;Amyloid Plaques;117
12.3.2.3;Synaptic Changes;117
12.3.2.4;Granulovacuolar Bodies;117
12.3.2.5;Hirano Bodies;117
12.3.3;Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration;117
12.3.4;Dementia with Parkinsonism;118
12.3.4.1;Parkinson's Disease with Dementia;118
12.3.4.2;Diffuse Lewy Body Disease;118
12.3.4.3;Lewy Body Variant of AD;118
12.3.4.4;Progressive Supranuclear Palsy;118
12.3.4.5;Corticobasal Degeneration;118
12.3.4.6;Dementia Pugilistica;118
12.3.5;Vascular Dementia;119
12.3.5.1;Multi-infarct Dementia;119
12.3.5.2;Binswanger's Disease;119
12.3.5.3;Lacunar State;119
12.3.6;Cadasil;119
12.3.7;Further Reading;119
12.4;Bilingualism and Aphasia;119
12.4.1;Bilingualism and the Brain;120
12.4.2;Types of Bilingual Aphasias and Patterns of Recovery;120
12.4.3;Bilingual Aphasia Assessment;121
12.4.4;Rehabilitation;121
12.4.5;Conclusion;122
12.4.6;Bibliography;122
12.5;Brain Asymmetry, Evolution;123
12.5.1;Behavioral Traits: Language and Handedness;123
12.5.2;Structural Asymmetries;123
12.5.2.1;Petalias and Related Asymmetries;123
12.5.2.2;Sylvian Fissure and Related Asymmetries;124
12.5.2.3;Central Sulcus and Related Asymmetries;125
12.5.2.4;Ventricular Asymmetries;125
12.5.2.5;Tissue Component Asymmetries;125
12.5.3;Determining Factors of Brain Asymmetries;126
12.5.3.1;Heredity versus Environment;126
12.5.3.2;Fetal Orientation;127
12.5.3.3;Hormones;127
12.5.3.4;Gender-Specific Asymmetries;127
12.5.3.5;Functional Adaptation;128
12.5.3.6;Aberrant Asymmetries and Disease;128
12.5.4;Evolutionary Origins of Anatomical Asymmetries;130
12.5.4.1;Brain Size Expansion;130
12.5.4.2;Left-Hemispheric Dominance for Language;130
12.5.4.3;Left-Hemispheric Dominance for Handedness;130
12.5.4.4;Brain Asymmetries in Nonhuman Species;130
12.5.5;Acknowledgments;131
12.5.6;Further Reading;131
12.5.7;Relevant Websites;122
12.6;Brain Damage, Functional Reorganization;131
12.6.1;Introduction;131
12.6.2;Homologous Area Adaptation;132
12.6.3;Cross-Modal Reassignment;132
12.6.4;Potentiation of Topographic Representations;133
12.6.5;Compensatory Masquerade;133
12.6.6;Discussion;133
12.6.7;Further Reading;134
13;C;136
13.1;Category-Specific Knowledge;136
13.1.1;Principles of Organization;136
13.1.1.1;Modality-Specific Hypotheses;136
13.1.1.2;Domain-Specific Hypotheses;136
13.1.1.3;Feature-Based Hypotheses;136
13.1.2;Clues from Cognitive Neuropsychology;137
13.1.2.1;Explaining Category-Specific Semantic Deficits;138
13.1.3;Clues from Functional Neuroimaging;139
13.1.4;Conclusion;139
13.1.5;Acknowledgments;140
13.1.6;Bibliography;140
13.2;Cerebellum, Clinical Pathology;141
13.2.1;Introduction;141
13.2.2;Motor Symptoms;142
13.2.2.1;Muscle Tone;142
13.2.2.1.1;Gordon Holmes sign;142
13.2.2.1.2;Pendulousness;137
13.2.2.1.3;Postural asymmetries;142
13.2.2.1.4;Pendular tendon reflexes;143
13.2.2.2;Impairment of Motor Coordination;143
13.2.2.2.1;Heel-knee-shin/toe square-drawing tests;143
13.2.2.2.2;Finger-nose-finger test;143
13.2.2.2.3;Rebound;143
13.2.2.2.4;Finger-to-finger and finger-to-thumb tests;143
13.2.2.2.5;Rapid, alternating movements;143
13.2.2.3;Tremor;143
13.2.2.3.1;Intention or kinetic tremor;143
13.2.2.3.2;Postural tremor;144
13.2.2.3.3;Palatal tremor;144
13.2.2.4;Oculomotor Disturbances;144
13.2.2.5;Equilibrium and Stance;144
13.2.2.6;Gait;144
13.2.2.7;Speech;144
13.2.2.7.1;Dysarthria;144
13.2.2.7.2;Cerebellar mutism;145
13.2.2.7.3;Agrammatism;145
13.2.2.7.4;Verbal fluency;145
13.2.3;Cognition and Emotion;145
13.2.4;Cerebellar Role in Motor Learning;145
13.2.5;Localization: Body Maps and Motor Modes;145
13.2.5.1;Sensorimotor Maps;145
13.2.5.2;Localization of Cognitive Functions;146
13.2.6;Further Reading;140
13.3;Classical Tests for Speech and Language Disorders;146
13.3.1;Introduction;146
13.3.2;Reference Models for the Assessment of Speech and Language Impairment;147
13.3.3;Classical Tests for the Assessment of Aphasia;148
13.3.3.1;Bedside and Screening Tests;148
13.3.3.2;Comprehensive Examinations and Aphasia Batteries;148
13.3.3.3;Tests for the Assessment of Specific Aspects of Language;149
13.3.3.4;The Assessment of Functional Communication;149
13.3.4;Classical Tests for the Assessment of Speech and Language Impairment in Children;149
13.3.4.1;Screening Tests;150
13.3.4.2;Comprehensive Examinations and Batteries;150
13.3.4.3;Tests for Specific Aspects of Language;150
13.3.4.4;The Assessment of Reading and Writing;151
13.3.5;Classical Tests for the Assessment of Speech and Language Impairment in Special Populations;151
13.3.6;Conclusion;152
13.3.7;Bibliography;152
13.4;Cognition in Aging and Age-Related Disease;153
13.4.1;Introduction;153
13.4.2;Cognitive Declines with Healthy Aging;153
13.4.2.1;Domain-General Theories of Cognitive Aging;153
13.4.2.1.1;Sensory deficits;153
13.4.2.1.2;Inhibition;153
13.4.2.1.3;Speed of processing;154
13.4.2.2;Domain-Specific Theories of Cognitive Aging;154
13.4.2.2.1;Word-finding difficulties and transmission deficits;154
13.4.2.2.2;Contextual memory and associative binding deficits;155
13.4.3;Preserved Cognitive Function with Healthy Aging;155
13.4.3.1;Crystallized Intelligence;155
13.4.3.2;Emotion Regulation;155
13.4.4;Neural Changes with Healthy Aging;156
13.4.4.1;Changes in Prefrontal Cortex;156
13.4.4.2;Medial Temporal Lobe Changes;156
13.4.4.3;Changes in Emotion Processing Regions;156
13.4.5;Mild Cognitive Impairment;157
13.4.6;Alzheimer's Disease;157
13.4.6.1;Cognitive Changes in AD;157
13.4.6.1.1;Episodic memory;157
13.4.6.1.2;Semantic memory;157
13.4.6.1.3;Working memory and executive function;157
13.4.7;Neural Changes in AD;158
13.4.7.1;Neural Changes in Later-Stage AD;158
13.4.8;Individual Differences in Aging;158
13.4.9;Further Reading;152
13.5;Cognition, An Overview of Neuroimaging Techniques;159
13.5.1;Anatomical Techniques;159
13.5.2;Functional Techniques;159
13.5.2.1;Classes of Functional Neuroimaging Techniques;159
13.5.2.1.1;Direct measures of neural activity: EEG and MEG;159
13.5.2.1.2;Indirect measures of neural activity: PET;160
13.5.2.1.3;Indirect measures of neural activity: fMRI;161
13.5.3;Related Techniques;161
13.5.3.1;Optical Brain Imaging;161
13.5.4;Trade-Offs between Temporal and Spatial Resolution;161
13.5.5;Advantages and Limitations of Neuroimaging Techniques;162
13.5.6;Contributions to the Study of Cognition;162
13.5.7;Further Reading;163
13.6;Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia;163
13.6.1;Why Study Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia?;163
13.6.2;Article Overview;164
13.6.3;Cognitive Endophenotypes;164
13.6.4;Executive Function Deficits;164
13.6.4.1;Inhibition;165
13.6.4.2;Task Switching;165
13.6.4.3;Working Memory;166
13.6.4.4;Response Monitoring ;166
13.6.5;Declarative Memory;167
13.6.6;Thought, Language, and Semantic Memory Disturbances;167
13.6.7;Challenges and Potential Confounds in the Study of Cognition;167
13.6.7.1;Heterogeneity;167
13.6.7.2;Variability;168
13.6.7.3;Amotivation;168
13.6.7.4;Medications;168
13.6.7.5;Generalized Deficit;168
13.6.8;Are There Fundamental Deficits That Give Rise to Widespread Cognitive Disturbance?;168
13.6.8.1;Attention;169
13.6.8.2;Deficient Automation;169
13.6.8.3;Context Processing;169
13.6.9;Promising Advances in the Study of Cognition;169
13.6.9.1;Imaging Genetics;169
13.6.9.2;Neuroimaging Advances;170
13.6.10;Further Reading;170
13.6.11;Relevant Website;171
13.7;Cognitive Impairment;171
13.7.1;A Model of Cognition;171
13.7.2;The Model in Action;171
13.7.2.1;Level 1: Arousal and Activation;171
13.7.2.2;Level 2: Content of Activated Consciousness;171
13.7.2.3;Level 3: Prefrontal Cortex and Supervisory Control;172
13.7.2.4;Level 4: Self-Awareness and Metacognition;173
13.7.3;Conclusion;173
13.7.4;Further Reading;174
13.8;Consciousness, Neural Basis of Conscious Experience;174
13.8.1;Basic Definitions and Concepts;174
13.8.1.1;Physical Nature; System Property;174
13.8.1.2;Reports of Conscious Experience versus Behavioral Detection;175
13.8.2;Do Animals Have Conscious Experience?;175
13.8.3;Are Computers Conscious?;176
13.8.4;Studies of Neural Basis;176
13.8.4.1;Effects of Cerebral Lesions;176
13.8.4.2;Regional Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism;176
13.8.4.3;Electrophysiological Stimulation and Recording;177
13.8.5;Time Factors in Conscious and Unconscious Mental Functions;177
13.8.5.1;Neural Delay for Sensory Experience;177
13.8.5.2;Neural Delay for Intention to Act;177
13.8.5.3;'Time-On' Theory for Conscious versus Unconscious Functions;178
13.8.6;Unity of Conscious Experience;178
13.8.6.1;A testable field theory;178
13.8.7;Further Reading;178
14;D;180
14.1;Deafness;180
14.1.1;Assessment of Hearing;180
14.1.2;Causes of Impaired Hearing;180
14.1.2.1;Sites and Types of Abnormality;181
14.1.2.2;Sensorineural Impairment;182
14.1.2.3;Animal Models for Deafness;183
14.1.2.4;The Cochlear Prosthesis;183
14.1.3;Further Reading;184
14.2;Delirium and Language;184
14.2.1;Diagnostic Criteria and Differential Diagnosis;185
14.2.2;Communication and Language in Delirium;186
14.2.3;Conclusion;186
14.2.4;Bibliography;184
14.3;Dementia and Language;187
14.3.1;Introduction;187
14.3.2;Diagnostic Criteria and Differential Diagnosis;188
14.3.3;Language Disorders in the Major Forms of Dementia;188
14.3.4;Language Disorders in Dementia of the Alzheimer Type;188
14.3.5;Language Disorders in Vascular Dementia;190
14.3.6;Language Disorders in Dementia with Lewy Bodies;190
14.3.7;Language Disorders in Frontotemporal Lobe Disease;191
14.3.7.1;Language Disorders in Frontotemporal Dementia;191
14.3.7.2;Language Disorders in Semantic Dementia;191
14.3.7.3;Language Disorders in Progressive Nonfluent Aphasia;192
14.3.8;Conclusions;192
14.3.9;Bibliography;192
14.4;Dichotic Listening Studies of Brain Asymmetry;193
14.4.1;Dichotic Stimuli;193
14.4.2;The Dichotic Test Situation;194
14.4.2.1;DL Paradigms;188
14.4.3;The Right-Ear Advantage;194
14.4.4;Attentional Factors;195
14.4.5;Neuroanatomical Basis;195
14.4.6;Validity and Reliability;196
14.4.7;Calculation of DL Scores;197
14.4.8;Arousal and Activation;197
14.4.9;Developmental Effects;197
14.4.10;Sex Differences and Handedness Effects;197
14.4.11;Clinical Populations;198
14.4.12;Nonverbal Stimuli and Lateralization of Affect;198
14.4.13;Further Reading;192
14.5;Diffusion and Perfusion Imaging;199
14.5.1;Dynamic Contrast Perfusion-Weighted Imaging;199
14.5.1.1;Use of PWI and DWI to Identify Neural Bases of Lexical Processing;199
14.5.1.2;Use of PWI and DWI to Reevaluate Hypotheses about Brain-Behavior Relationships;200
14.5.2;Arterial Spin Labeling Perfusion Imaging;201
14.5.3;Summary and Future Directions;201
14.5.4;Bibliography;201
14.6;Direct Electrical Stimulation of Language Cortex;202
14.6.1;Introduction;202
14.6.2;Description of the Technique;202
14.6.3;Comparison to other Techniques;204
14.6.4;Selected Findings with Cortical Stimulation Technique;204
14.6.4.1;Correspondence with the Classic Functional-Neuroanatomic Model;204
14.6.4.1.1;Lesion Effects and Aphasia;204
14.6.4.2;Divergence from the Classic Neurologic Model;191
14.6.4.2.1;Discreteness of Representation;205
14.6.4.2.2;Individual Variability within Anterior and Posterior Language Areas;206
14.6.4.2.3;Language Representation Outside of Classical Language Regions;206
14.6.4.2.4;Different Stimulation Sites for Different Language Tasks;206
14.6.4.2.5;Cognitive Efficiency and Precision of Localization;207
14.6.4.3;Electrical Stimulation and Subcortical Structures;207
14.6.5;Challenges and Future Directions;208
14.6.6;References;209
14.6.7;Further Reading;209
14.7;Dyslexia and Dysgraphia, Developmental;210
14.7.1;Genetics;210
14.7.2;Brain Structure and Function;211
14.7.3;Dysgraphia;211
14.7.4;Research on Dyslexia and Dysgraphia;212
14.7.5;Interventions - Dyslexia and Dysgraphia;213
14.7.6;Acknowledgments;214
14.7.7;Bibliography;214
14.8;Dyslexia, Neurodevelopmental Basis;215
14.8.1;Introduction;215
14.8.2;Behavioral Profile of Developmental Dyslexia;216
14.8.2.1;Definition of Developmental Dyslexia;216
14.8.2.2;Cognitive Characteristics of Developmental Dyslexia;216
14.8.2.3;Sensorimotor Characteristics of Developmental.Dyslexia;217
14.8.3;Biological Basis of Developmental Dyslexia;218
14.8.3.1;Brain-Based Evidence;218
14.8.3.2;Genetic Evidence;219
14.8.4;Dyslexia in Different Languages and Orthographies;219
14.8.5;Comorbid Disorders;219
14.8.5.1;Developmental Dyslexia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder;219
14.8.5.2;Developmental Dyslexia and SLI;220
14.8.6;Therapeutic Approaches to Developmental Dyslexia;220
14.8.7;Summary;221
14.8.8;Further Reading;221
14.8.9;Relevant Website;214
15;E;222
15.1;Event-Related Potentials in the Study of Language;222
15.1.1;Introduction;222
15.1.2;Language-Related Components and their Functional Significance;222
15.1.2.1;The N100: An Exogenous Component with Linguistic Functions?;223
15.1.2.2;Prelexical Expectations: The Phonological Mapping Negativity;223
15.1.2.3;Lexico-Semantic Integration: The N400 Component;225
15.1.2.4;Left Anterior Negativities (LANs) and P600s in Morpho-Syntactic Processing;226
15.1.2.5;Early and Other Left Anterior Negativities;227
15.1.2.5.1;Working Memory;229
15.1.2.5.2;Scalp Distribution of LAN Components;229
15.1.2.6;P600/Syntactic Positive Shift;229
15.1.2.7;Verb Argument Structure Violations and Thematic Roles;230
15.1.2.8;Interactions Between Syntax, Semantics, Discourse, and Prosody;231
15.1.2.9;Prosodic Phrasing: The Closure Positive Shift;233
15.1.3;Challenges and Future Directions;233
15.1.4;References;233
15.1.5;Further Reading;234
16;F;236
16.1;Fluency and Voice, Disorders of;236
16.1.1;Definition;236
16.1.2;Clinical Features of Stuttering;236
16.1.3;Genetics;236
16.1.4;Brain Imaging;237
16.1.5;Theories of Stuttering;238
16.1.6;Acquired Stuttering;241
16.1.7;Conclusion;242
16.1.8;Acknowledgments;242
16.1.9;Bibliography;242
16.2;Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Research on Language;243
16.2.1;Introduction;243
16.2.2;Recognizing Auditory Input as Speech;244
16.2.3;Word Representation: Form and Meaning;244
16.2.4;From Words to Sentences: Syntactic Processing;246
16.2.5;From Words to Sentences: Semantic Processing of Sentences;247
16.2.6;From Sentences to Discourse;248
16.2.7;Challenges and Future Directions;249
16.2.8;References;250
16.2.9;Further Reading;250
17;H;252
17.1;Handedness and Cerebral Laterality;252
17.1.1;Further Reading;254
17.2;Hemispheric Specialization and Cognition;255
17.2.1;Hemispheric Differences in Cognition;255
17.2.1.1;Discovery of Hemispheric Differences in Cognition;255
17.2.1.2;Evidence from Patients with Unilateral Brain Damage;255
17.2.1.3;Evidence from Split-Brain Patients;255
17.2.1.4;Perceptual Asymmetries in Neurologically Intact Individuals;255
17.2.1.5;Neuroimaging Studies of Hemispheric Specialization;256
17.2.2;Asymmetries Related to Emotion and Emotional Processing;256
17.2.3;Models of Hemispheric Specialization;256
17.2.4;Origins of Hemispheric Asymmetry;257
17.2.5;Developmental Issues and Hemispheric Specialization;258
17.2.6;The Effect of Handedness;258
17.2.7;Interhemispheric Integration;258
17.2.8;Summary;259
17.2.9;Further Reading;259
18;I;262
18.1;Imaging Brain Lateralization;262
18.1.1;Integrating Semantics;262
18.1.2;Discourse-Related Studies;263
18.1.3;Investigating the Pragmatics of Communication;264
18.1.3.1;Attributing Mental States;264
18.1.3.2;Investigating Figurative Language;265
18.1.4;Bibliography;266
18.2;Imaging Brain Lateralization, Words, Sentences, and Influencing Factors in Healthy, Pathological, and Special Populations...;266
18.2.1;Imaging Single Word Lateralization;267
18.2.2;Imaging Sentence Lateralization;269
18.2.3;Imaging Hemispheric Lateralization in Patients;270
18.2.3.1;Defining Hemispheric Lateralization for Presurgical Patients;271
18.2.3.2;Language Lateralization in Other Patients;271
18.2.4;Imaging Special Populations;271
18.2.5;Imaging Gender;273
18.2.6;Imaging Handedness;273
18.2.7;Bibliography;273
18.3;Intelligence;275
18.3.1;Fundamental Concepts;276
18.3.2;Heredity and Environment;276
18.3.3;Products of Collaboration;276
18.3.4;Judgment;277
18.3.5;Emotions;277
18.3.6;History of Neural Correlation;277
18.3.7;History of IQ Tests;278
18.3.8;Neuroanatomy;278
18.3.9;Conclusions;279
18.4;Interhemispheric Interaction in the Lateralized Brain;279
18.4.1;Introduction;279
18.4.2;Functional Hemispheric Asymmetry;280
18.4.3;Advantages and Challenges of Hemispheric Asymmetry;281
18.4.4;Mechanisms of Interhemispheric Interaction;282
18.4.4.1;Costs and Benefits of Interhemispheric Interaction;283
18.4.4.2;Mixing Stimuli that are Processed in Different Cortical Areas;284
18.4.4.3;Bihemispheric Redundancy Gain;284
18.4.5;Individual Variation;285
18.4.5.1;Variation Across the Life Span;285
18.4.5.2;Cognition and Memory;285
18.4.5.3;Cognitive Deficits and Emotional Disorders;286
18.4.5.4;Gender;286
18.4.6;Challenges and Future Directions;287
18.4.7;References;287
18.4.8;Further Reading;288
19;L;290
19.1;Landau Kleffner Syndrome;290
19.1.1;Definition and Epidemiology;290
19.1.2;Clinical Manifestations;290
19.1.3;Epileptic Manifestations;291
19.1.4;EEG Findings;291
19.1.5;Etiology and Pathogenesis;292
19.1.6;Laboratory and Radiological Studies;292
19.1.7;Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis;292
19.1.8;Therapy;293
19.1.8.1;General Principles;293
19.1.8.2;Antiepileptic Drugs;293
19.1.8.3;Corticosteroids and Adrenocorticotrophin Hormone;293
19.1.8.4;Intravenous Immunoglobulin;293
19.1.8.5;Surgery;294
19.1.8.6;Speech Therapy and Behavioral Intervention;294
19.1.9;Evolution and Prognosis;294
19.1.10;Further Reading;294
19.2;Language and Discourse;295
19.2.1;Discourse in Normal Cognitive Aging;295
19.2.2;Discourse of the Dementias;295
19.2.2.1;Alzheimer's Disease;295
19.2.2.2;Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD);295
19.2.3;Discourse in Focal Neurological Injuries: Left Versus Right Hemisphere-Lesioned Patients;296
19.2.4;Traumatic Brain Injury in Childhood;296
19.2.5;Conclusion;296
19.2.6;Further Reading;296
19.3;Language Development;297
19.3.1;Introduction;297
19.3.2;Overview of Early Language Development;297
19.3.2.1;First Words;297
19.3.2.1.1;Linguistic structure;297
19.3.2.1.2;Production;297
19.3.2.1.3;Perception;298
19.3.2.2;Morphology;298
19.3.2.2.1;Production;298
19.3.2.2.2;Perception;298
19.3.2.3;First Word Combinations;298
19.3.3;Gradual Development of Grammatical Constructions Involving Phrases;299
19.3.3.1;Question Formation;299
19.3.3.2;Verb Complement Clauses;299
19.3.3.3;Relative Clauses;300
19.3.4;Overregularization;300
19.3.5;Nativism and Domain Specificity;300
19.3.5.1;Recovery from Errors and Negative Evidence;301
19.3.6;Cues to Structure;302
19.3.7;Further Reading;302
19.4;Language Disorders, Aphasia;303
19.4.1;Introduction;303
19.4.2;Approaches;303
19.4.3;Functional-Clinical Aphasia Syndromes;304
19.4.3.1;Broca's Aphasia;304
19.4.3.2;Wernicke's Aphasia;304
19.4.3.3;Conduction Aphasia;305
19.4.3.4;Anomic Aphasia;305
19.4.3.5;Global Aphasia;305
19.4.4;Single-Modality Functional-Clinical Aphasia Syndromes;305
19.4.4.1;Apraxia of Speech;305
19.4.4.2;Alexia with Agraphia;305
19.4.4.3;Pure Word Deafness;306
19.4.4.4;Agraphia;306
19.4.4.5;Alexia;306
19.4.4.6;Transcortical Aphasias;306
19.4.4.6.1;Transcortical Sensory Aphasia;307
19.4.4.6.2;Mixed Transcortical Aphasia;307
19.4.5;Neurolinguistic Structures;307
19.4.5.1;Phonological Disorders;308
19.4.5.2;Morphological Disorders;308
19.4.5.3;Syntactic Disorders;308
19.4.5.4;Semantic Disorders;308
19.4.5.5;Narrative Disorders;308
19.4.5.6;Alexias;308
19.4.5.6.1;Deep Alexia;308
19.4.5.6.2;Phonological Alexia;309
19.4.5.6.3;Surface Alexia;309
19.4.5.7;Agraphic Disorders;309
19.4.6;Conclusion;309
19.4.7;Further Reading;309
19.5;Language Following Congenital Disorders (not SLI);310
19.5.1;Neurodevelopmental Disorders;310
19.5.2;Language Learning in Infancy and Toddlerhood;310
19.5.3;Precursors of Expressive Language in Developmental Disorders;311
19.5.4;Word Comprehension and Production and Early Grammatical Development;311
19.5.5;Later Language Learning;312
19.5.5.1;Williams Syndrome;312
19.5.5.2;Down Syndrome;313
19.5.5.3;Autistic Spectrum Disorders;313
19.5.6;Neurodevelopmental Disorders versus Acquired Disorders;313
19.5.6.1;Acquired Language Disorders: Learning Language after Early Brain Injury;313
19.5.6.2;Lesion Location and Language Outcome;313
19.5.6.3;Lesion Location and Language Acquisition in Infants;314
19.5.6.4;Neural Plasticity in Response to Focal Lesions;314
19.5.7;Conclusions;315
19.5.8;Further Reading;315
19.6;Language in Aged Persons;316
19.6.1;Introduction;316
19.6.2;Theories of Cognitive Aging;316
19.6.3;The Nature of Language Processing;316
19.6.4;Age-Related Change in Language Processing;317
19.6.4.1;Language Comprehension and Memory;317
19.6.4.1.1;Word processing;317
19.6.4.1.2;Syntactic processing;317
19.6.4.1.3;Textbase processing;318
19.6.4.1.4;Situation model;318
19.6.4.1.5;Discourse structures and context;319
19.6.4.1.6;Recap;319
19.6.4.2;Language Production;319
19.6.5;Conclusion;320
19.6.6;Further Reading;320
19.7;Language, Auditory Processes;321
19.7.1;Introduction;321
19.7.2;Unique Neural Mechanisms for Processing Language Acoustically?;322
19.7.3;Segmental Processing;322
19.7.4;Suprasegmental (Intonational) Processing;325
19.7.5;Future Directions;326
19.7.6;Further Reading;326
19.8;Language, Cortical Processes;327
19.8.1;Neural Structures Involved in Language;327
19.8.2;Models of Organization of the Brain for Language Processing;328
19.8.3;Conclusion;330
19.8.4;Further Reading;330
19.9;Language, Learning Impairments;330
19.9.1;Language Abilities of Children with SLI;331
19.9.2;Theoretical Accounts;332
19.9.3;Classification and Labels;333
19.9.4;Neurobiological Correlates;334
19.9.5;Genetics and Heritability;334
19.9.6;SLI or Dyslexia?;334
19.9.7;An Implicit Learning Impairment?;335
19.9.8;Further Reading;335
19.10;Lateralization of Language across the Life Span;336
19.10.1;Introduction;336
19.10.2;Brain Development;337
19.10.2.1;Brain Anatomy;337
19.10.2.2;Electrophysiological Evidence;338
19.10.2.3;Behavioral Evidence;338
19.10.2.4;Clinical Evidence;339
19.10.3;Changes Associated with Aging;339
19.10.3.1;Normal Aging;340
19.10.3.2;Clinical Evidence;340
19.10.4;Interpretive Complexities;340
19.10.4.1;General Problems in Studying Life-Span Development;340
19.10.4.2;Problems Related to the Study of Language Lateralization;341
19.10.5;Challenges and Future Directions;342
19.10.6;References;343
19.10.7;Further Reading;344
19.11;Lexical Impairments Following Brain Injury;344
19.11.1;Further Reading;347
20;M;348
20.1;Memory Disorders;348
20.1.1;Varieties of Amnesic Syndrome;348
20.1.1.1;Korsakoff Syndrome;348
20.1.1.2;Herpes Encephalitis;348
20.1.1.3;Severe Hypoxia;349
20.1.1.4;Vascular Disorder;349
20.1.1.5;Head Injury;349
20.1.1.6;Transient Global Amnesia;350
20.1.1.7;Transient Epileptic Amnesia;350
20.1.1.8;Summary of Amnesic Syndrome;350
20.1.2;Episodic Memory Deficits;350
20.1.2.1;Explicit and Implicit Memory;351
20.1.2.2;Recall and Recognition Memory;351
20.1.2.3;Remembering and Knowing; Recollection and Familiarity;352
20.1.3;Semantic Memory Deficits;352
20.1.3.1;Semantic Dementia;352
20.1.3.2;New Learning of Semantic Material in Amnesia;352
20.1.4;Retrograde Amnesia;353
20.1.4.1;Temporal Gradients;353
20.1.4.2;Focal Retrograde Amnesia;354
20.1.5;Confabulation and Memory Distortion;355
20.1.6;Summary;355
20.1.7;Further Reading;356
20.1.8;Relevant Websites;357
20.2;Memory, Autobiographical;357
20.2.1;The Cognitive Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory;357
20.2.1.1;The Episodic/Semantic Distinction within Autobiographical Memory;357
20.2.1.2;Strategic Retrieval Processes in Autobiographical Remembering;358
20.2.1.3;Autobiographical Retrieval across the Life Span;358
20.2.2;Autobiographical Memory in Patients with Neuropsychological Disorders;358
20.2.2.1;Contributions of the Medial Temporal, Diencephalic, and Basal Forebrain Regions;358
20.2.2.2;Prefrontal Contributions to Autobiographical Amnesia;359
20.2.2.3;Psychogenic Retrograde Amnesia in Autobiographical Memory;359
20.2.3;Functional Imaging of Autobiographical Remembering;359
20.2.4;Assessment of Autobiographical Memory;359
20.2.5;Further Reading;360
20.3;Memory, Episodic;360
20.3.1;Further Reading;362
20.4;Memory, Explicit/Implicit;363
20.4.1;Explicit Memory;363
20.4.1.1;Tasks;363
20.4.1.2;Biological Bases of Explicit Memory;363
20.4.2;Implicit Memory;363
20.4.2.1;Implicit Memory Tasks;364
20.4.2.2;Biological Bases of Implicit Memory;364
20.4.3;Memory Impairment in Clinical Populations;364
20.4.4;Life Span and Risk of Memory Impairment;364
20.4.5;Further Reading;365
20.5;Memory, Semantic;365
20.5.1;Introduction;365
20.5.2;Semantic Memory and the Medial Temporal Lobe Memory System;357
20.5.3;Cortical Lesions and the Breakdown of Semantic Memory;358
20.5.3.1;Object Concepts;366
20.5.3.2;Semantic Dementia and the General Disorders of Semantic Memory;366
20.5.3.3;Category-Specific Disorders of Semantic Memory;367
20.5.3.3.1;Models of category-specific disorders;367
20.5.3.3.2;Functional neuroanatomy of category-specific disorders;368
20.5.4;Organization of Conceptual Knowledge: Neuroimaging Evidence;368
20.5.4.1;Object Knowledge Is Organized by Sensory and Motor-Based Properties;368
20.5.4.2;Neural Networks for Animate Entities and Tools;369
20.5.4.3;Linking Category-Related Representations to Sensory and Motor Properties;370
20.5.5;Further Reading;370
20.6;Memory, Short Term and Working;371
20.6.1;Introduction;371
20.6.1.1;Definition;371
20.6.1.2;Historical Backdrop;371
20.6.1.3;Current State of Working Memory Research;371
20.6.2;Visual Working Memory;371
20.6.3;Tactile Working Memory;374
20.6.4;Auditory Working Memory;374
20.6.5;Multiple Encoding in Working Memory;374
20.6.6;Working Memory and Prefrontal Cortex;376
20.6.7;Conclusion;377
20.6.8;Further Reading;377
20.7;Memory, Spatial;377
20.7.1;Spatial Memory and Spatial Cognition;377
20.7.2;Localization and Function of Spatial Memory;378
20.7.2.1;Neural Encoding of Spatial Memory;378
20.7.3;Evidence from Animal Models of Spatial Memory;379
20.7.4;Hormonal Influences;380
20.7.5;Effects of Aging;381
20.7.6;Further Reading;381
20.8;Mental Retardation;382
20.8.1;History;382
20.8.2;Epidemiology;371
20.8.3;Etiology;371
20.8.4;Genetics;371
20.8.5;Conclusion;385
20.8.6;Further Reading;385
20.9;Mental Status Testing;385
20.9.1;History;385
20.9.2;Psychiatric Status;386
20.9.2.1;Appearance;386
20.9.2.2;Attitude;386
20.9.2.3;Motor Activity/Behavior;386
20.9.2.4;Mood;386
20.9.2.5;Affect;386
20.9.2.6;Thought Process;387
20.9.2.7;Thought Content;387
20.9.3;Cognitive Status;387
20.9.3.1;Attention;388
20.9.3.2;Orientation;388
20.9.3.3;Language;388
20.9.3.4;Construction;388
20.9.3.5;Memory;388
20.9.3.6;Higher Cognitive Functioning;389
20.9.4;Conclusion;389
20.9.5;Further Reading;389
20.10;Morphology, Disorders of;389
20.10.1;Introduction;389
20.10.2;Types of Morphological Errors in Aphasia;390
20.10.3;Do Patterns of Morphological Impairment Differ across Languages?;391
20.10.4;What Do Morphological Deficits in Aphasia Tell Us about Normal Morphological Processing?;391
20.10.5;Do Patterns of Morphological Impairment Differ across Aphasic Syndromes?;393
20.10.6;Is There a Morphology Center in the Brain?;394
20.10.7;Bibliography;394
21;N;398
21.1;Neuropragmatics, Disorders and Neural Systems;398
21.1.1;Introduction;398
21.1.2;Pragmatic Disorders in Adult Clinical Populations;398
21.1.2.1;Discourse;398
21.1.2.2;Non-literal Language and Figurative Language;399
21.1.2.2.1;Indirect Requests;399
21.1.2.2.2;Other Non-literal and Figurative Language;399
21.1.2.2.3;Mentalizing or Mindreading;400
21.1.2.2.3.1;ToM and Dementia;400
21.1.2.2.3.2;ToM and Schizophrenia;400
21.1.2.2.3.3;ToM and RHD;400
21.1.2.3;Summary;401
21.1.3;Explaining Linguistic Pragmatic Impairments in Clinical Populations;401
21.1.4;Neural Systems Underlying Pragmatic Abilities;402
21.1.4.1;Neural Systems in Discourse Processing;402
21.1.4.2;Neural Systems in Non-literal and Figurative Language;402
21.1.4.3;Neural Systems in Mindreading (ToM);406
21.1.4.4;Summary;406
21.1.5;Challenges and Future Directions;408
21.1.6;Acknowledgments;409
21.1.7;References;409
21.1.8;Further Reading;410
21.2;Neuropsychological Testing;410
21.2.1;Introduction;410
21.2.2;Historical Perspective;410
21.2.3;The Basic Premise of Neuropsychological Testing;411
21.2.4;What Comprises a Neuropsychological Evaluation?;411
21.2.4.1;Selection of Tests;412
21.2.4.2;The Clinical Interview;412
21.2.4.3;Test-Taking Effort;412
21.2.4.4;Premorbid Level of Cognitive Functioning;414
21.2.4.5;Analysis of Test Performance;415
21.2.4.6;Emotional, Behavioral, and Personality Testing;415
21.2.4.7;Final Interpretations and Recommendations;415
21.2.5;Repeat Neuropsychological Testing;416
21.2.6;Common Referral Questions for Adults;416
21.2.7;Common Referral Questions for Children;417
21.2.8;Conclusions;418
21.2.9;Further Reading;418
22;P;420
22.1;Parkinson's Disease and Language;420
22.1.1;Introduction to Parkinson's Disease;420
22.1.2;Language in Parkinson's Disease;420
22.1.3;Effect of Neurosurgical Treatments on Language;422
22.1.4;Bibliography;422
22.2;PET Research of Language;423
22.2.1;Introduction;423
22.2.2;PET Versus fMRI - Some Methodological Issues;423
22.2.3;Crucial PET Findings;424
22.2.3.1;Language Comprehension;424
22.2.3.1.1;Hemispheric Differences;425
22.2.3.1.2;Anterior-Posterior Differences;426
22.2.3.2;Language Production;427
22.2.3.2.1;Propositional Language Production;427
22.2.3.2.2;Broca's Area for Speech and Sign Language;428
22.2.4;Challenges and Future Directions;429
22.2.5;Acknowledgments;430
22.2.6;References;430
22.2.7;Further Reading;431
22.3;Phonological Impairments, Sublexical;432
22.3.1;Introduction;432
22.3.2;Functional Metabolic Mosaics;432
22.3.3;Recent Linguistic Aphasiological Studies of Sublexical Units;434
22.3.4;Recovery from the Production of Neologisms;437
22.3.5;Conclusions;439
22.3.6;Bibliography;439
22.4;Phonological, Lexical, Syntactic, and Semantic Disorders in Children;440
22.4.1;Brain Measures Common to the Study of Language Disabilities;440
22.4.2;Autism;441
22.4.2.1;General Brain Imaging Results for Autism;422
22.4.2.2;Social - Brain Difference and Autism;441
22.4.2.3;Phonology and Autism;441
22.4.2.4;Semantics and Autism;441
22.4.3;Dyslexia;442
22.4.3.1;General Brain Imaging Results for Dyslexia;442
22.4.3.2;Phonology and Dyslexia;442
22.4.3.3;Semantics and Dyslexia;443
22.4.3.4;Reading and Dyslexia;443
22.4.4;Down Syndrome;443
22.4.4.1;General Brain Imaging Results for DS;444
22.4.4.2;Phonology and DS;444
22.4.4.3;Semantics and DS;444
22.4.4.4;Syntax and DS;444
22.4.5;Specific Language Impairment;444
22.4.5.1;Phonology and SLI;445
22.4.5.2;Semantics and SLI;445
22.4.6;William's Syndrome;445
22.4.6.1;Anatomical Aspects of WS;445
22.4.6.2;Semantics and WS;445
22.4.6.3;Phonology and WS;446
22.4.6.4;Syntax and WS;446
22.4.7;Summary and Conclusion;446
22.4.8;Acknowledgments;446
22.4.9;Bibliography;446
22.5;Phonology;449
22.5.1;Disorders;449
22.5.2;Conclusion;450
22.5.3;Further Reading;450
22.6;Primary Progressive Aphasia in Nondementing Adults;451
22.6.1;Terminology;451
22.6.2;Clinical Features;451
22.6.3;Linguistic and Neuropsychological Features;451
22.6.4;Differential Diagnosis;452
22.6.5;Laboratory Testing;452
22.6.6;Radiological Features;452
22.6.7;Treatment;453
22.6.8;Prognosis and Complications;453
22.6.9;Bibliography;453
22.7;Procedural Learning in Humans;454
22.7.1;Multiple Memory Systems;454
22.7.2;Types of Procedural Learning;454
22.7.2.1;Motor Skill Learning;454
22.7.2.1.1;Sequence learning;454
22.7.2.1.2;Rotary pursuit;455
22.7.2.1.3;Mirror tracing;455
22.7.2.1.4;Motor adaptation;455
22.7.2.2;Perceptual Skill Learning;455
22.7.2.2.1;Mirror reading;455
22.7.2.2.2;Perceptual categorization;455
22.7.2.2.3;Visual prototype learning;456
22.7.2.3;Cognitive Skill Learning;457
22.7.2.3.1;Category learning;457
22.7.2.3.2;Probabilistic classification learning;458
22.7.2.3.3;Artificial grammar learning;458
22.7.2.3.4;Tower puzzle tasks;459
22.7.3;Characteristics of Procedural Learning;459
22.7.3.1;Automaticity;459
22.7.3.2;Awareness;459
22.7.3.3;Long-Term Retention;459
22.7.4;Neural Bases of Procedural Learning;460
22.7.4.1;Striatum;460
22.7.4.2;Cerebellum;460
22.7.4.3;Cerebral Cortex;461
22.7.5;Conclusion;461
22.7.6;Further Reading;439
22.8;Proper and Common Names, Impairments;461
22.8.1;Bibliography;464
22.9;Prosopagnosia;465
22.9.1;Historical Background;465
22.9.2;How Selective is Prosopagnosia?;465
22.9.3;Neuroanatomy;466
22.9.4;Conclusion;466
22.9.5;Further Reading;467
23;R;468
23.1;Reading and Acquired Dyslexia;468
23.1.1;Processes Involved in Reading;468
23.1.2;Acquired Dyslexias;469
23.1.2.1;Peripheral Dyslexias;469
23.1.2.2;Central Dyslexias;469
23.1.3;Acknowledgments;470
23.1.4;Further Reading;470
23.2;Recovery of Language after Stroke or Trauma in Adults;470
23.2.1;Introduction;470
23.2.2;Aphasia: Localized and Distributed;471
23.2.3;Recovery: A Continuous Phenomenon;472
23.2.3.1;A Framework for Understanding Recovery;472
23.2.3.2;The Aphasia Recovery Curve;473
23.2.4;Neurologic Factors in Aphasia Recovery;474
23.2.4.1;Mechanisms of Recovery;474
23.2.4.2;The Role of the Contralateral Cortex in Recovery;475
23.2.5;Anagraphic Factors in Aphasia Recovery;477
23.2.5.1;The Role of Rehabilitation in Recovery;477
23.2.6;Conclusion;479
23.2.7;Bibliography;479
23.3;Remediation of Language Disorders in Adults;482
23.3.1;Taxonomy of Language Remediation Approaches;482
23.3.2;Biological Approach to Language Remediation;484
23.3.3;Treatment Efficacy and Effectiveness;484
23.3.4;Bibliography;484
24;S;486
24.1;Sensory Aging, Hearing;486
24.1.1;Presbycusis;486
24.1.1.1;Causes;486
24.1.1.2;Prevalence;486
24.1.1.3;Research Issues;487
24.1.2;Anatomy and Physiology;487
24.1.2.1;Outer Ear and Middle Ear;487
24.1.2.2;Inner Ear;487
24.1.2.3;Auditory Nerve;488
24.1.3;Perception;488
24.1.3.1;Psychoacoustics;488
24.1.3.1.1;Absolute auditory thresholds;488
24.1.3.1.2;Frequency selectivity and discrimination;489
24.1.3.1.3;Loudness and intensity discrimination;489
24.1.3.1.4;Temporal processing;490
24.1.3.2;Speech Processing;490
24.1.3.3;Interactions between Auditory and Cognitive Processing;491
24.1.3.4;Rehabilitation;491
24.1.4;Further Reading;491
24.2;Sentence Comprehension;491
24.2.1;Introduction;491
24.2.2;Ambiguity Resolution;493
24.2.3;Complex Sentence Interpretation;494
24.2.4;Referentially Dependent Expressions and Links to Discourse Representations;494
24.2.5;Sentence Comprehension Methodologies;495
24.2.6;Further Reading;496
24.3;Sentence Production;497
24.3.1;Introduction;497
24.3.2;Initial Insights: Evidence from Speech Errors;497
24.3.3;The Move to the Laboratory;499
24.3.3.1;Scope of Planning;499
24.3.3.2;Accessibility Effects;499
24.3.3.3;Grammatical Agreement;500
24.3.3.4;Syntactic Priming;500
24.3.3.5;The Separation of Words and Syntax;501
24.3.4;From the Lab to the Wild;501
24.3.4.1;Corpora;501
24.3.4.2;Nonverbal Devices;501
24.3.4.3;Communicating Discourse Properties;502
24.3.5;The Neuroscience of Sentence Production;502
24.3.6;Further Reading;502
24.3.7;Relevant Website;503
24.4;Sign Language, Disorders of;503
24.4.1;Sign Language Breaks Down by Linguistic Levels;503
24.4.2;Parkinson's Disease: Disruption of Phonetics;503
24.4.3;Aphasia: Disruption of Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, and Semantics;504
24.4.3.1;Phonology;504
24.4.3.2;Morphology;504
24.4.3.3;Syntax;505
24.4.3.4;Semantics;505
24.4.4;Right Hemisphere Damage: Disruption of Discourse;506
24.4.5;Sign Language and Spoken Language;506
24.4.6;Bibliography;491
24.5;Speech Disorders, Overview;507
24.5.1;Further Reading;508
24.6;Speech Impairments in Neurodegenerative Diseases/Psychiatric Illnesses;508
24.6.1;Recording and Data Processing Equipment;509
24.6.2;Neurobiology of Speech Production in Common Neurodegenerative Disorders;509
24.6.3;Speech and Voice Acoustic Characteristics in Neurodegenerative Diseases;509
24.6.3.1;Parkinson Disease;509
24.6.3.2;Huntington Disease;510
24.6.3.3;Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (Steele-Richardson-Olszewski Syndrome);510
24.6.3.4;Multiple Sclerosis;511
24.6.4;Acoustic Speech Characteristics in Psychiatric Diseases;511
24.6.4.1;Schizophrenia;511
24.6.4.2;Major Depression;512
24.6.5;The Clinical Utility and Application of Speech and Voice Acoustical Analyses;512
24.6.6;Bibliography;496
24.7;Speech Processes in Dysarthria;513
24.7.1;Bibliography;502
24.8;Speech Production, Adult;516
24.8.1;Introduction;516
24.8.1.1;Vocal Tract Dynamics;517
24.8.1.2;Measures of Muscle Output;517
24.8.2;Methods and Studies of Speech Kinematics;517
24.8.2.1;X-Ray Tracking of Orofacial Movements;517
24.8.2.2;Orofacial Magnetometry;517
24.8.2.3;Optical Three-Dimensional Tracking of the Face;518
24.8.2.4;Tracking Tongue Movements;518
24.8.2.5;Ultrasonic Imaging of the Tongue;518
24.8.2.6;Tracking Velar and Laryngeal Movements;518
24.8.2.7;Velopharynx;519
24.8.2.8;Laryngeal Kinematics;519
24.8.2.9;Videokymography;520
24.8.2.10;Laryngeal Aerodynamics;520
24.8.2.11;Chest Wall Kinematics;521
24.8.2.12;Magnetometry;521
24.8.2.13;Functional Neural Systems for Speech Motor Control;521
24.8.3;Further Reading;523
24.9;Sturge-Weber-Dimitri Syndrome and Language;524
24.9.1;Bibliography;503
24.10;Synesthesia and Language;526
24.10.1;Colored Graphemes;526
24.10.2;Gustatory Phonemes;527
24.10.3;Structure versus Meaning;528
24.10.4;Semantic Categories as Synesthetic Inducers;529
24.10.5;Bibliography;530
24.10.6;Relevant Websites;523
25;T;532
25.1;The Intracarotid Amobarbital Test (Wada Test) and Complementary Procedures to Evaluate Language Before Epilepsy Surgery;532
25.1.1;Introduction;532
25.1.2;Historical Background;532
25.1.3;Current Clinical use of the IAT;532
25.1.4;Rationale Underlying the IAT Procedure;533
25.1.5;Components of the IAT Procedure;534
25.1.6;Problems and Considerations in IAT Protocol Administration and Interpretation;535
25.1.6.1;Unilateral versus Bilateral IAT;535
25.1.6.2;Drugs and Administration Methods;535
25.1.6.3;Determination of Adequacy of Anesthesia and Timing of Stimulus Presentation;536
25.1.6.4;Criteria to Establish Hemispheric Language Dominance;536
25.1.7;IAT in Pediatric Populations;536
25.1.8;Validation and Reliability Studies;537
25.1.9;Supplementary and Alternative Techniques for Establishing Language Lateralization;537
25.1.10;Challenges and Future Directions;539
25.1.11;References;539
25.1.12;Further Reading;540
25.2;Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) as a Tool for Studying Language;540
25.2.1;Introduction;540
25.2.2;Assessing Hemispheric Specialization for Language with TMS;541
25.2.2.1;High-Frequency rTMS;541
25.2.2.2;Low-Frequency rTMS;542
25.2.2.3;Single-Pulse TMS and EMG;542
25.2.2.4;Summary;542
25.2.3;Different Effects of TMS on Task Performance: Posterior Temporal Cortex and Picture Naming;543
25.2.4;TMS Studies of Semantic and Phonological Processing in LIFG;545
25.2.5;Speech Perception and the Motor System;545
25.2.6;Representation of Actions and Verbs in the Motor System and Frontal Cortex;546
25.2.7;TMS Studies in Patients with Aphasia;547
25.2.8;Challenges and Future Directions;548
25.2.9;References;548
25.2.10;Further Reading;549
25.3;Transient Global Amnesia;549
25.3.1;Further Reading;550
25.4;Turner´s Syndrome;551
25.4.1;Neuroanatomical and Neurophysiological Aspects;551
25.4.2;Neurocognitive Profile;551
25.4.3;TS Psychosocial Profile;552
25.4.4;Conclusions, Limitations, and Future Directions;553
25.4.5;Further Reading;553
26;V;554
26.1;Visual Associative Memory;554
26.1.1;Associative Memory in Vision: An Elementary Model for Declarative Memory Networks;554
26.1.2;Neuronal Correlates of Associative Memory in the Monkey Inferior Temporal Cortex;554
26.1.2.1;Inferior Temporal Neurons Establishing Visual Associative Links;554
26.1.2.2;Forward Processing of Long-Term Associative Memory;555
26.1.3;Retrieval Signaling in Visual Association Memory;557
26.1.3.1;Two Types of Sustained Activities in the Delay Period;557
26.1.3.2;Active Maintenance of Associative Mnemonic Signaling in the Monkey Inferior Temporal Cortex;558
26.1.4;Global Network of Memory Retrieval;558
26.1.4.1;Automatic Retrieval: Backward Spreading of the Memory-Retrieval Signal in the Temporal Cortex;558
26.1.4.2;Active Retrieval: Top-Down Signal from the Prefrontal Cortex in Executive Control of Memory Retrieval;560
26.1.5;Further Reading;562
27;W;564
27.1;Word Learning;564
27.1.1;Defining the Problem;564
27.1.2;Word Learning across Development;565
27.1.3;Word Learning as Induction;566
27.1.4;Constraints and Biases on Hypothesized Meanings;566
27.1.5;Social Cues to Reference;567
27.1.6;Sentential Contexts as Cues to Word Meanings;568
27.1.7;Final Words;568
27.1.8;Further Reading;569
27.2;Word Production;569
27.2.1;Introduction;569
27.2.2;The Functional Architecture of Word Production;570
27.2.2.1;Conceptual Preparation;570
27.2.2.2;Lexical Processing;571
27.2.2.3;Phonological Processing;572
27.2.2.4;Self-Monitoring;573
27.2.3;Information Flow in the Functional Architecture: Modularity versus Interactivity;573
27.2.4;Neural Correlates of the Functional Architecture;574
27.2.5;Summary and Future Directions;575
27.2.6;Further Reading;576
27.3;Word Recognition;576
27.3.1;Factors That Influence Word Recognition;576
27.3.1.1;Frequency;577
27.3.1.2;Neighborhood Effects;577
27.3.1.3;Mapping from Spelling to Sound in Visual Word Recognition;577
27.3.2;Word Recognition Influences Lower Levels of Processing;578
27.3.2.1;Phoneme Restoration and the Ganong Effect;578
27.3.2.2;The Reicher-Wheeler Effect and `Interactive Activation´;578
27.3.3;Word Recognition Models and Controversies in Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience;579
27.3.3.1;Interactive Processing with Feedback or Autonomous, Feed-Forward Processing?;579
27.3.3.2;`Words and Rules´ or `Constraint Satisfaction´?;579
27.3.4;Neuroanatomy of Word Recognition;580
27.3.4.1;Superior Temporal Gyrus and Superior Temporal Sulcus;580
27.3.4.2;Inferior Frontal Gyrus;580
27.3.4.3;The `Visual Word Form Area´;581
27.3.5;Summary;581
27.3.6;Further Reading;581
27.4;Written Language, Acquired Impairments of;581
27.4.1;Introduction;581
27.4.1.1;Phylogenetic Observations;582
27.4.1.2;Writing Systems;582
27.4.2;Reading and Spelling Impairments in Classical Aphasiology;582
27.4.2.1;Pure Forms of Reading and Writing Disorders;583
27.4.3;Cognitive Models of Reading;583
27.4.3.1;Dual Route Models of Reading;583
27.4.3.2;Lexical Analogy Models;584
27.4.4;Reading Impairments in a Cognitive Neuropsychological Frame;585
27.4.4.1;Phonological or Surface Dyslexia;585
27.4.4.2;Direct Dyslexia;585
27.4.4.3;Deep Dyslexia;585
27.4.4.4;Letter-by-Letter Reading;585
27.4.4.5;Neglect Dyslexia;585
27.4.5;Diagnosis of Reading Impairments;585
27.4.6;Clinical Neuropsychological Classification of the Spelling Impairments;586
27.4.6.1;Aphasic Agraphia;587
27.4.6.2;Alexia with Agraphia;587
27.4.6.3;Pure Agraphia;587
27.4.6.4;Apraxic Agraphia;587
27.4.6.5;Callosal Agraphia;587
27.4.6.6;Visuospatial (Neglect) Agraphia;587
27.4.7;Cognitive Models of Spelling;587
27.4.8;Spelling Impairments in a Cognitive Neuropsychological Frame;588
27.4.8.1;Deep Dysgraphia;588
27.4.8.2;Graphemic Buffer Disorders;588
27.4.8.3;Peripheral Dysgraphia (Allographic Dysgraphia);588
27.4.9;Diagnosis of Spelling Impairments;589
27.4.10;Bibliography;589
28;Index;590