E-Book, Englisch, 496 Seiten
Reihe: Ecosystem Science and ApplicationsISSN
ISBN: 978-3-11-028791-2
Verlag: De Gruyter
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)
Fachgebiete
Weitere Infos & Material
1;Part I. State and Changes in Dryland East Asia;27
1.1;1 State and Change of Dryland East Asia (DEA);29
1.1.1;1.1 Geography, Demography and Economics in DEA;29
1.1.2;1.2 Climate and Land-Use Changes;36
1.1.3;1.3 Ecosystem Production and Evapotranspiration;40
1.1.4;1.4 Scientific and Societal Challenges for Adaptations in DEA;42
1.1.5;References;46
1.2;2 Dryland East Asia in Hemispheric Context;49
1.2.1;2.1 Study Regions;49
1.2.2;2.2 Change Analysis of Vegetated Land Surface;51
1.2.3;2.3 Retrospective Trend Analysis Reveals Areas of Significant Change;52
1.2.4;2.4 Vegetation Change in Three Epochs;53
1.2.5;2.5 Land Cover Variation and Change;56
1.2.6;2.6 Precipitation Variation and Change;60
1.2.7;2.7 Conclusion;64
1.2.8;References;65
1.3;3 NEESPI and MAIRS Programs in Dryland East Asia;71
1.3.1;3.1 Introduction;71
1.3.2;3.2 Contrast and Comparison;73
1.3.2.1;3.2.1 The Programs;73
1.3.2.2;3.2.2 Research Approaches;74
1.3.2.3;3.2.3 Organization Structure;75
1.3.2.4;3.2.4 Major Research Activities;75
1.3.3;3.3 Major Findings and Achievements;76
1.3.3.1;3.3.1 Understanding Climate Change;76
1.3.3.2;3.3.2 Understanding Societal Consequences;77
1.3.3.3;3.3.3 Understanding Ecosystem Impacts;79
1.3.3.4;3.3.4 Institutional Responses to Environmental Change;80
1.3.3.5;3.3.5 Understanding Challenges;80
1.3.4;3.4 Conclusions;82
1.3.5;References;83
1.4;4 Land Use and Land Cover Change in Dryland East Asia;87
1.4.1;4.1 Introduction;88
1.4.2;4.2 Global Land Use Changes through Centuries;91
1.4.3;4.3 Long-Term Changes in Cropland and Pastureland in DEA;92
1.4.4;4.4 Recent Changes in Asian Drylands;94
1.4.4.1;4.4.1 Rangeland Degradation and Desertification and Increased Cropland;94
1.4.4.2;4.4.2 Grassland Recovery;98
1.4.4.3;4.4.3 Reforestation/Afforestation;98
1.4.5;4.5 Sahel Land Use Change;100
1.4.6;References;104
1.5;5 Urban Expansion and Environment Change in Dryland East Asia;107
1.5.1;5.1 Introduction;107
1.5.2;5.2 Study Area, Data, and Methodology;109
1.5.2.1;5.2.1 Study Area;109
1.5.2.2;5.2.2 Data and Methodology;111
1.5.3;5.3 Findings;112
1.5.3.1;5.3.1 Urban Expansion;113
1.5.3.2;5.3.2 Environment Impact;116
1.5.4;5.4 Case of ¨Ur¨umqi;118
1.5.4.1;5.4.1 Spatio-Temporal Change in Ürümqi;118
1.5.4.2;5.4.2 Environment Challenges of Ürümqi;120
1.5.5;5.5 Discussion;122
1.5.5.1;5.5.1 Characteristics of Urbanization in Arid Regions;122
1.5.5.2;5.5.2 Socio-Economic Factors Driving Urbanization;123
1.5.6;5.6 Conclusions;125
1.5.7;References;126
1.6;6 Ecosystem Carbon Cycle under Changing Atmosphere, Climate and Land Use in Dryland East Asia;131
1.6.1;6.1 Introduction;131
1.6.2;6.2 Simulated Ecosystem Carbon Patterns in DEA;132
1.6.3;6.3 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Atmospheric Change;136
1.6.3.1;6.3.1 CO2 Enrichment;136
1.6.3.2;6.3.2 Nitrogen Deposition and Its Impact on DEA Ecosystems;137
1.6.4;6.4 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Climate Change;138
1.6.4.1;6.4.1 Responses to Precipitation Changes;138
1.6.4.2;6.4.2 Responses to Temperature Changes;139
1.6.5;6.5 Responses of Ecosystem Carbon Cycling to Land Use and Land Cover Changes;140
1.6.6;6.6 Interactions among Environmental Changes;141
1.6.6.1;6.6.1 Limitation of Nitrogen Availability on CO2 Impacts;141
1.6.6.2;6.6.2 Dependence of Nitrogen Effects on Water Status (Precipitation Regimes);142
1.6.6.3;6.6.3 Interaction between Temperature (Warming) and Water Availability (Precipitation);142
1.6.6.4;6.6.4 Relationship and Interactions between Land Use and Climate Changes on Ecosystem Carbon Cycling;143
1.6.7;6.7 Carbon Sequestration Potential and Human Adaption to Climate Change;144
1.6.8;References;144
1.7;7 Dynamics of Vegetation Productivity in Dryland East Asia from 1982 to 2010;151
1.7.1;7.1 Introduction;151
1.7.2;7.2 Data and Methods;153
1.7.2.1;7.2.1 AVHRR NDVI;153
1.7.2.2;7.2.2 MODIS NDVI;154
1.7.2.3;7.2.3 Land Cover Map;155
1.7.2.4;7.2.4 MERRA Reanalysis Data;155
1.7.2.5;7.2.5 Agricultural Statistics;155
1.7.2.6;7.2.6 Statistical Analysis;157
1.7.3;7.3 Results and Discussion;157
1.7.3.1;7.3.1 Trends of Spatially-Averaged NDVI;157
1.7.3.2;7.3.2 Spatial Patterns of NDVI Trends;161
1.7.3.3;7.3.3 Climatic Drivers;163
1.7.3.4;7.3.4 Other Drivers;165
1.7.4;7.4 Conclusions;168
1.7.5;References;169
1.8;Summary I : Contexts of Change;175
2;Part II. Consequences;177
2.1;8 Impacts of Global Change on Water Resources in Dryland East Asia;179
2.1.1;8.1 Introduction;180
2.1.2;8.2 Key Water Resource Challenges;183
2.1.2.1;8.2.1 Distribution ofWater Balances across DEA and Historical Changes;183
2.1.2.2;8.2.2 Land Use/Land Cover Change;186
2.1.2.3;8.2.3 Agricultural Irrigation and Industrialization;189
2.1.2.4;8.2.4 Climate Change;191
2.1.3;8.3 Water Resources under Environmental Changes: Case Studies;193
2.1.3.1;8.3.1 Loess Plateau;193
2.1.3.2;8.3.2 Impacts of Future Climate Change on Runoff across DEA;197
2.1.4;8.4 Conclusions;200
2.1.5;References;201
2.2;9 Examining Changes in Land Cover and Land Use, Regional Climate and Dust in Dryland East Asia and Their Linkages within the Earth System;209
2.2.1;9.1 Introduction;210
2.2.2;9.2 Assessment of Decadal Dust Emission Based on Historical LCLU, Regional Climate and the Regional Coupled Dust Modeling System WRF-Chem-DuMo;211
2.2.3;9.3 Observation-based Dust Climatology and Its Relationship to LCLU and Regional Climate;220
2.2.4;9.4 A Satellite Perspective on the Last Decade;225
2.2.5;9.5 Impacts of Dust on Human-Environment-Climate Systems;229
2.2.6;References;232
2.3;10 Biophysical Regulations of Grassland Ecosystem Carbon and Water Fluxes in DEA;239
2.3.1;10.1 Brief Introduction of Abiotic and Biotic Factors in Relation to Carbon and Water Fluxes in DEA;239
2.3.2;10.2 Biophysical Regulations of Carbon Fluxes between Grazed and Ungrazed Grasslands;246
2.3.2.1;10.2.1 Responses of Daytime Net Ecosystem Exchange to Biotic/Abiotic Factors;246
2.3.2.2;10.2.2 Response of Nighttime NEE (Re) to T and SWC;250
2.3.2.3;10.3 Ecosystem Carbon Fluxes between Grassland and Cultivated Cropland;253
2.3.2.3.1;10.3.1 Responses of Daytime NEE to Biotic/Abiotic Factors;253
2.3.2.3.2;10.3.2 Response of Nighttime NEE (Re) to T and SWC;256
2.3.2.4;10.4 Biophysical Regulations of Water and Energy Fluxes;258
2.3.2.4.1;10.4.1 Energy Partitioning and Its Response to Abiotic/Biotic Factors;258
2.3.2.4.2;10.4.2 EcosystemWater and Energy Fluxes between Grazed and Ungrazed Grasslands and between Grassland and Cultivated Cropland;259
2.3.3;References;266
2.4;11 Afforestation and Forests at the Dryland Edges: Lessons Learned and Future Outlooks;271
2.4.1;11.1 Introduction;271
2.4.2;11.2 Vegetation Zonation and Climate;272
2.4.3;11.3 Climate Forcing Effect of Forests: Ambiguous Conditions at the Dryland Edges;273
2.4.3.1;11.3.1 Low Elevation Xeric Limits: Vulnerable Forest-Grassland Transition;276
2.4.3.2;11.3.2 Management of Forests—Plantations vs. Close to Nature Ecosystems;277
2.4.4;11.4 Effects of Forest Management on Forest Hydrological Balances in Dry Regions: A Comparison of China and the United States;278
2.4.4.1;11.4.1 China;279
2.4.4.2;11.4.2 United States;280
2.4.5;11.5 Past and Future of Forest Policy in Dryland Regions of China;281
2.4.5.1;11.5.1 Causes and Consequences of Expanding Desertification;281
2.4.5.2;11.5.2 Shelterbelt Development and Sand Control Programs in China;281
2.4.5.3;11.5.3 Debates and Critics about the Achievements of the Past Programs;282
2.4.5.4;11.5.4 Lessons Learned from Past;284
2.4.6;11.6 Conclusions;284
2.4.7;References;285
2.5;12 Human Impact and Land Degradation in Mongolia;291
2.5.1;12.1 Introduction;292
2.5.2;12.2 Land Degradation Overview;292
2.5.2.1;12.2.1 Mining Land Degradation;293
2.5.2.2;12.2.2 Land Degradation by Road;295
2.5.2.3;12.2.3 Pastureland Degradation and Desertification;296
2.5.2.4;12.2.4 Soil Erosion of Arable Land;298
2.5.2.5;12.2.5 Deforestation;299
2.5.2.6;12.2.6 Soil Pollution;300
2.5.3;12.3 Use of Fallout Radionuclide Methods for Soil Erosion Study;300
2.5.4;12.4 Conclusions;304
2.5.5;References;305
2.6;13 The Effect of Large-Scale Conservation Programs on the Vegetative Development of China’s Loess Plateau;309
2.6.1;13.1 Introduction;310
2.6.2;13.2 Conservation Programs;311
2.6.3;13.3 Study Region;312
2.6.3.1;13.3.1 Loess Plateau;312
2.6.3.2;13.3.2 Subset for Fine Scale Analysis;313
2.6.4;13.4 Data;314
2.6.4.1;13.4.1 MODIS Data;314
2.6.4.2;13.4.2 Landsat Data;315
2.6.4.3;13.4.3 Grazing Statistics;316
2.6.4.4;13.4.4 Anthromes;316
2.6.5;13.5 Methods;319
2.6.6;13.6 Results and Discussion;319
2.6.6.1;13.6.1 Vegetation Index and Albedo Changes;319
2.6.6.2;13.6.2 500 m NDVI Changes;322
2.6.6.3;13.6.3 Grazing Intensity Change;324
2.6.7;13.7 Conclusions;328
2.6.8;References;329
2.7;Summary II : Consequences;333
3;Part III. Solutions/Adaptations;335
3.1;14 Monitoring and Assessment of Dryland Ecosystems with Remote Sensing;337
3.1.1;14.1 Problems of Land Degradation and Desertification in Drylands: Current Challenges and Perspectives;338
3.1.2;14.2 Indicators of Land Degradation/Desertification and Their Detection by Remote Sensing;344
3.1.2.1;14.2.1 History of Degradation/Desertification Indicator Development in Recent Decades;344
3.1.2.2;14.2.2 Retrieving Biophysical Spectral Information with Remote Sensing for DLDD;348
3.1.2.3;14.2.3 Bio-physiological Indexes for Assessment and Monitoring;355
3.1.3;14.3 Review of Available Sensors and Data over DEA and Their Suitability for Detecting Desertification Indicators;358
3.1.3.1;14.3.1 Short Outlook on Future Satellite Sensors over DEA;361
3.1.4;14.4 Remote Sensing Approach for Desertification Assessment in Central Asia: History, Current Research, and Perspectives—A Case Study;363
3.1.5;14.5 Conclusions;368
3.1.6;References;369
3.2;15 The Effects of Spatial Resolution on Vegetation Area Estimates in the Lower Tarim River Basin, Northwestern China;377
3.2.1;15.1 Introduction;377
3.2.2;15.2 Study Area;379
3.2.3;15.3 Methodology;380
3.2.4;15.4 Results and Discussion;382
3.2.5;15.5 Conclusions;386
3.2.6;References;387
3.3;16 New Ecology Education: Preparing Students for the Complex Human- Environmental Problems of Dryland East Asia;389
3.3.1;16.1 Introduction;390
3.3.2;16.2 Description of New Ecology Education;391
3.3.2.1;16.2.1 Topic 1: What’s Going On? (Conceptual Models);395
3.3.2.2;16.2.2 Topic 2: Life Is So Confusing! (Nonlinearity);396
3.3.2.3;16.2.3 Topic 3: Everything Is Connected to Everything Else (Systems Thinking);400
3.3.2.4;16.2.4 Topic 4: Climbing Up-and-Down the Complexity Ladder (Hierarchy Theory);402
3.3.2.5;16.2.5 Topic 5: What Does It Take to Change This System? (Resilience);404
3.3.2.6;16.2.6 Topic 6: Coping with Land Degradation in Drylands (Ecosystem Services);408
3.3.2.7;16.2.7 Topic 7: Unraveling the Complexity of Coupled H-E Systems and Desertification (The Drylands Development Paradigm);412
3.3.2.8;16.2.8 Topic 8: Where Art, Science, and Craft Meet (Ostrom’s Framework);418
3.3.3;16.3 Conclusions;420
3.3.4;References;422
3.4;17 Grassland Degradation and Restoration in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China from the 1950s to 2000s: Population, Policies and Profits;431
3.4.1;17.1 Introduction;431
3.4.2;17.2 Population and Urbanization in IM;433
3.4.2.1;17.2.1 Population Evolution;434
3.4.2.2;17.2.2 Population and Over-Grazing;435
3.4.2.3;17.2.3 Urbanization and Restoration;436
3.4.3;17.3 Policy, Laws and Regulation for Grassland;438
3.4.4;17.4 From Production to Profits;440
3.4.4.1;17.4.1 Animal Husbandry;440
3.4.4.2;17.4.2 Tourism Development;442
3.4.4.3;17.4.3 Environmental Service;444
3.4.5;17.5 Conclusions;444
3.4.6;References;446
3.5;18 Sustainable Governance of the Mongolian Grasslands: Comparing Ecological and Social-Institutional Changes in the Context of Climate Change in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China;451
3.5.1;18.1 Introduction;452
3.5.2;18.2 Explanatory Models of Grassland Dynamics;453
3.5.3;18.3 Analyses and Results;455
3.5.3.1;18.3.1 Collectivization of Pastures and Livestock;457
3.5.3.2;18.3.2 Privatization and Market Incentives;460
3.5.3.3;18.3.3 Recentralization of Grassland Management in IM, China;462
3.5.3.4;18.3.4 Changing Roles of the State, Market and Community for Grassland Management;463
3.5.3.5;18.3.5 Climate Variability and Change: History and Future;464
3.5.4;18.4 Discussion;465
3.5.5;18.5 Conclusions;468
3.5.6;References;469
3.6;19 Adaptive Management of Grazing Lands;473
3.6.1;19.1 Introduction;473
3.6.2;19.2 Distribution of Grazing Lands and Problems;476
3.6.3;19.3 Case Study and Adaptive Management in IM;477
3.6.3.1;19.3.1 Study Site;477
3.6.3.2;19.3.2 The ACIAR-Model;478
3.6.3.3;19.3.3 Typical Farm;479
3.6.3.4;19.3.4 Economic Stocking Rate;479
3.6.3.5;19.3.5 Improved Feeding of Livestock during Winter and Spring;480
3.6.3.6;19.3.6 Changing Lambing Time;482
3.6.3.7;19.3.7 Use of Warm Sheds during Cold Seasons;484
3.6.4;19.4 Conclusions and Discussion;486
3.6.5;References;489
3.7;Summary III: Solutions and Adaptations;491
4;Index;493
