Hakeem / Sabir / Ozturk Soil Remediation and Plants

Prospects and Challenges
1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-12-799913-5
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 752 Seiten

The soil is being contaminated continuously by a large number of pollutants. Among them, heavy metals are an exclusive group of toxicants because they are stable and difficult to disseminate into non-toxic forms. The ever-increasing concentrations of such pollutants in the soil are considered serious threats toward everyone's health and the environment. Many techniques are used to clean, eliminate, obliterate or sequester these hazardous pollutants from the soil. However, these techniques can be costly, labor intensive, and often disquieting. Phytoremediation is a simple, cost effective, environmental friendly and fast-emerging new technology for eliminating toxic heavy metals and other related soil pollutants. Soil Remediation and Plants provides a common platform for biologists, agricultural engineers, environmental scientists, and chemists, working with a common aim of finding sustainable solutions to various environmental issues. The book provides an overview of ecosystem approaches and phytotechnologies and their cumulative significance in relation to solving various environmental problems. - Identifies the molecular mechanisms through which plants are able to remediate pollutants from the soil - Examines the challenges and possibilities towards the various phytoremediation candidates - Includes the latest research and ongoing progress in phytoremediation

Autoren/Hrsg.

Hakeem, Khalid

Sabir, Muhammad

Ozturk, Munir

Mermut, Ahmet Ruhi

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Soil Remediation and Plants;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Contents;6
5;Preface;20
6;Foreword;22
7;Contributors;26
8;Chapter 1 - Phytoremediation of Soils: Prospects and Challenges;30
8.1;INTRODUCTION;30
8.2;TECHNOLOGIES FOR SITE REMEDIATION;34
8.3;PHYTOREMEDIATION;36
8.4;HEAVY METAL SOIL POLLUTANTS AND USE OF PHYTOREMEDIATION;43
8.5;ARSENIC;45
8.6;LEAD;47
8.7;ZINC;49
8.8;COPPER;50
8.9;CADMIUM;52
8.10;MERCURY;53
8.11;PROSPECTS FOR PHYTOREMEDIATION;55
8.12;CHALLENGES OF PHYTOREMEDIATION;57
8.13;TECHNIQUES FOR GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS USED FOR PHYTOREMEDIATION;59
8.14;CONCLUSION;62
8.15;REFERENCES;62
9;Chapter 2 - Soil Contamination with Metals: Sources, Types and Implications;66
9.1;INTRODUCTION;66
9.2;HEAVY METALS;68
9.3;EFFECTS OF HEAVY METALS IN SOILS AND PLANTS;72
9.4;RISK ASSESSMENT USING BIOAVAILABILITY AND BIO-ACCESSIBILITY TECHNIQUES;77
9.5;CONTROL MEASURES;80
9.6;CONCLUSIONS;84
9.7;REFERENCES;84
10;Chapter 3 - Phytoremediation: A Promising Strategy on the Crossroads of Remediation;92
10.1;INTRODUCTION;92
10.2;METAL POLLUTANTS AND HUMAN HEALTH;93
10.3;MICROBIAL-BASED REMEDIATION;95
10.4;ENHANCING BIOREMEDIATION THROUGH GENETIC ENGINEERING;96
10.5;PHYTOREMEDIATION;97
10.6;CONCLUSIONS;107
10.7;REFERENCES;107
11;Chapter 4 - Phytoremediation: Mechanisms and Adaptations;114
11.1;INTRODUCTION;114
11.2;PHYTOREMEDIATION AND MECHANISMS;115
11.3;CONCLUSIONS;126
11.4;REFERENCES;126
12;Chapter 5 - Phytoremediation: An Eco-Friendly Green Technology for Pollution Prevention, Control and Remediation
;136
12.1;INTRODUCTION;136
12.2;PLANTS’ RESPONSE TO HEAVY METALS;138
12.3;FACTORS AFFECTING PHYTOREMEDIATION;144
12.4;MECHANISM FOR METAL DETOXIFICATION;148
12.5;CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES;150
12.6;REFERENCES;151
13;Chapter 6 - Recent Trends and Approaches in Phytoremediation;160
13.1;INTRODUCTION;160
13.2;PHYTOREMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES;161
13.3;GENETIC ENGINEERING TO IMPROVE PHYTOREMEDIATION;166
13.4;CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES;171
13.5;REFERENCES;171
14;Chapter 7 - Evaluation of Four Plant Species for Phytoremediation of Copper-Contaminated Soil;176
14.1;INTRODUCTION;176
14.2;LITERATURE REVIEW;178
14.3;MATERIALS AND METHODS;188
14.4;RESULTS AND DISCUSSION;193
14.5;SUMMARY, GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH;224
14.6;REFERENCES;226
15;Chapter 8 - Role of Phytoremediation in Radioactive Waste Treatment;236
15.1;INTRODUCTION;236
15.2;RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL AND SAFETY;244
15.3;CLASSIFICATION AND CATEGORIES;246
15.4;MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL;248
15.5;TRANSPORTATION AND RESPONSIBILITY;249
15.6;PHYTOREMEDIATION AND NON-PLANT METHODS;249
15.7;PHYTOREMEDIATION AND HYPERACCUMULATION;250
15.8;METHODS IN PHYTOREMEDIATION;252
15.9;TOLERANCE AND EXTRACTION;264
15.10;UPTAKE AND DISTRIBUTION;265
15.11;WETLANDS AND AQUATIC PHYTOREMEDIATION;266
15.12;TREATMENT, EVALUATION AND OBJECTIVES;267
15.13;COSTS AND ECONOMICS;269
15.14;TRANSGENIC PHYTOREMEDIATION;273
15.15;CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS;274
15.16;REFERENCES;276
16;Chapter 9 - Plant–Microbe Interactions in Phytoremediation;284
16.1;DEFINITION OF PHYTOREMEDIATION;284
16.2;PHYTOREMEDIATION APPLICATIONS;286
16.3;INTERACTIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND MICROBES IN PHYTOREMEDIATION;289
16.4;RHIZOSPHERE MICROBIOME;295
16.5;STIMULATION OF PLANT GROWTH BY MICROBIAL COMMUNITIES;297
16.6;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;300
16.7;REFERENCES;301
17;Chapter 10 - Soil Pollution in Turkey and Remediation Methods;316
17.1;INTRODUCTION;316
17.2;LAND USE OF TURKISH SOILS;318
17.3;SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION IN TURKEY;320
17.4;REMEDIATION METHODS FOR POLLUTED SOILS;333
17.5;REMEDIATION STUDIES IN TURKEY;334
17.6;RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION;336
17.7;CONCLUSION;336
17.8;REFERENCES;337
18;Chapter 11 - Soil Pollution Status and Its Remediation in Nepal;342
18.1;INTRODUCTION;342
18.2;SOIL CHARACTERISTICS;344
18.3;SOILS OF NEPAL;345
18.4;NUTRIENT AND HEAVY METAL STATUS IN THE SOILS OF NEPAL;351
18.5;REMEDIATION OF TOXICITY FROM SOIL;354
18.6;REMEDIATION STUDIES ON REMOVAL OF TOXICITY IN SOIL OF NEPAL;355
18.7;CONCLUSIONS;355
18.8;REFERENCES;356
19;Chapter 12 - Transfer of Heavy Metals and Radionuclides from Soil to Vegetables and Plants in Bangladesh;360
19.1;INTRODUCTION;360
19.2;MATERIALS AND METHODS;362
19.3;RESULTS AND DISCUSSION;370
19.4;CONCLUSIONS;391
19.5;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;392
19.6;REFERENCES;393
20;Chapter 13 - Remediating Cadmium-Contaminated Soils by Growing Grain Crops Using Inorganic Amendments;396
20.1;INTRODUCTION;396
20.2;NATURAL CADMIUM LEVELS IN SOIL;397
20.3;SOURCES OF CADMIUM CONTAMINATION OF AGRICULTURAL SOILS;398
20.4;BIOASSESSMENT OF CADMIUM IN SOILS;399
20.5;FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ACCUMULATION OF CADMIUM IN CROPS;399
20.6;CADMIUM UPTAKE AND ACCUMULATION IN PLANTS;401
20.7;PLANT RESPONSE TO CD CONCENTRATIONS;407
20.8;THRESHOLD BIO-AVAILABLE CONCENTRATION OF CD;407
20.9;REMEDIATION OF CD-CONTAMINATED SOILS;408
20.10;CONCLUSIONS;414
20.11;REFERENCES;415
21;Chapter 14 - Phytoremediation of Pb-Contaminated Soils Using Synthetic Chelates;426
21.1;INTRODUCTION;426
21.2;THE PROBLEM OF PB;428
21.3;CHELATING AGENTS;428
21.4;COMPARISON OF SYNTHETIC CHELATING AGENTS;436
21.5;CONCLUSIONS;436
21.6;REFERENCES;437
22;Chapter 15 - Spatial Mapping of Metal-Contaminated Soils;444
22.1;INTRODUCTION;444
22.2;GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES TO ASSESS SPATIAL VARIABILITY;446
22.3;GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM;447
22.4;INVERSE WEIGHTED DISTANCE;450
22.5;KRIGGING;450
22.6;CONCLUSIONS;456
22.7;REFERENCES;457
23;Chapter 16 - Arsenic Toxicity in Plants and Possible Remediation;462
23.1;INTRODUCTION;462
23.2;SOURCES OF ARSENIC CONTAMINATION IN SOIL AND ENVIRONMENT;465
23.3;STATUS OF ARSENIC TOXICITY IN THE WORLD;467
23.4;ARSENIC HAZARD: A BANGLADESH PERSPECTIVE;470
23.5;ARSENIC UPTAKE AND TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS;477
23.6;PLANT RESPONSES TO ARSENIC TOXICITY;480
23.7;ANTIOXIDANT DEFENCE IN PLANTS IN RESPONSE TO ARSENIC STRESS;490
23.8;REMEDIATION OF ARSENIC HAZARDS;497
23.9;CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES;514
23.10;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;515
23.11;REFERENCES;515
24;Chapter 17 - Phytoremediation of Metal-Contaminated Soils Using Organic Amendments: Prospects and Challenges;532
24.1;BACKGROUND;532
24.2;SOURCES OF METALS;534
24.3;ROLE OF OM IN PHYTOAVAILABILITY OF METALS;535
24.4;ORGANIC AMENDMENTS AND PHYTOAVAILABILITY OF METALS IN CONTAMINATED SOILS;538
24.5;EFFECT OF TIME ON DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC AMENDMENTS AND METAL PHYTOAVAILABILITY;541
24.6;RESIDUAL EFFECT OF ORGANIC AMENDMENTS ON METAL PHYTOAVAILABILITY;543
24.7;ORGANIC ACIDS AND METAL PHYTOAVAILABILITY;544
24.8;PHYTOREMEDIATION WITH ORGANIC AMENDMENTS: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE THRUST;544
24.9;REFERENCES;545
25;Chapter 18 - Soil Contamination, Remediation and Plants: Prospects and Challenges;554
25.1;INTRODUCTION;554
25.2;SOURCES OF HEAVY METALS IN SOIL;556
25.3;POTENTIAL RISK OF HEAVY METALS TO SOIL;560
25.4;SOIL CONCENTRATION RANGES AND REGULATORY GUIDELINES FOR SOME HEAVY METALS;560
25.5;REMEDIATION OF CONTAMINATED SOIL BY HEAVY METALS;561
25.6;PREVENTION OF HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION;565
25.7;TRADITIONAL REMEDIATION OF CONTAMINATED SOIL;565
25.8;MANAGEMENT OF CONTAMINATED SOIL;566
25.9;CLASSIFICATION OF HEAVY METALS;569
25.10;SOURCES OF HEAVY METALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT;569
25.11;BENEFITS OF HEAVY METALS TO PLANTS;570
25.12;FUTURE PROSPECTS;571
25.13;CHALLENGES;571
25.14;CONCLUSIONS;572
25.15;REFERENCES;572
26;Chapter 19 - Improving Phytoremediation of Soil Polluted with Oil Hydrocarbons in Georgia;576
26.1;INTRODUCTION;576
26.2;CHARACTERIZATION OF SOIL TYPES;578
26.3;SELECTION OF MICROORGANISMS;579
26.4;SELECTION OF PLANTS;580
26.5;DETERMINATION OF THE DEGREE OF OXIDATIVE DEGRADATION OF HYDROCARBONS;586
26.6;REVELATION OF PLANT–MICROBIAL INTERACTION;588
26.7;MODEL EXPERIMENTS;588
26.8;REFERENCES;596
27;Chapter 20 - Remediation of Cd-Contaminated Soils: Perspectives and Advancements;600
27.1;BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION;600
27.2;CADMIUM EMISSIONS;600
27.3;SOIL DYNAMICS, RETENTION AND AVAILABILITY OF METALS;602
27.4;DYNAMICS OF CADMIUM IN SOILS;603
27.5;INFLUENCE OF THE ASSOCIATED CATIONS AND ANIONS ON CADMIUM BIOAVAILABILITY IN SOIL;603
27.6;RESPONSE OF CD TOWARDS NATURAL ELEMENTAL INORGANIC AMENDMENTS;604
27.7;ORGANIC AMENDMENTS VERSUS CADMIUM-CONTAMINATED SOILS;607
27.8;NATURAL ORGANIC ADDITIVES;608
27.9;ROOT EXUDATES AND THE CONCEPT OF ORGANIC ACIDS AS NATURAL CHELATORS;608
27.10;LOW-MOLECULAR-WEIGHT ORGANIC ACIDS AND CADMIUM CHELATION;609
27.11;EFFICACY OF SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHELATING AGENTS TOWARDS CADMIUM;610
27.12;RECENT PRESENTED REPORTS REGARDING GRAIN CROPS;611
27.13;CONCLUSIONS AND THE CONCEPT OF COUPLED PHYTOREMEDIATION AS A FUTURE PERSPECTIVE;615
27.14;REFERENCES;616
28;Chapter 21 - Phytoremediation of Radioactive Contaminated Soils;628
28.1;INTRODUCTION;628
28.2;SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS;629
28.3;MAJOR SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINANTS TO SOIL AND ENVIRONMENT;629
28.4;PHYTOREMEDIATION;633
28.5;POSSIBLE ROLES OF PHYTOREMEDIATION;633
28.6;IMPORTANT RADIONUCLIDES;637
28.7;RHIZOFILTRATION;644
28.8;NON-FOOD CROPS/ALTERNATIVE CROPS;644
28.9;STEPS INVOLVED IN REMEDIATION PROGRAMME MANAGEMENT;646
28.10;MAJOR STEPS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF A REMEDIATION PROGRAMME;646
28.11;PHYTOSTABILIZATION OF RADIONUCLIDE CONTAMINATED SOILS;650
28.12;REMEDIATION ACTIONS IMPLEMENTATION;650
28.13;REFERENCES;652
29;Chapter 22 - Heavy Metal Accumulation in Serpentine Flora of Mersin-Findikpinari (Turkey) – Role of Ethylenediamine Tetraacet;658
29.1;INTRODUCTION;658
29.2;MATERIALS AND METHODS;661
29.3;RESULTS AND DISCUSSION;664
29.4;CONCLUSION;683
29.5;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;684
29.6;REFERENCES;684
30;Chapter 23 - Phytomanagement of Padaeng Zinc Mine Waste, Mae Sot District, Tak Province, Thailand;690
30.1;INTRODUCTION;690
30.2;PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF A ZINC-MINE-INDUSTRY-RAVAGED ECOSYSTEM;694
30.3;PHYTOMANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN THE VICINITY OF MAE SOT ZINC MINE;697
30.4;FEASIBLE OPTIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF ARABLE LANDS MINE TAILING WATER;704
30.5;SOIL REMEDIATION;706
30.6;REDUCTION OF CD IN CROP PRODUCE;710
30.7;CONCLUSIONS;711
30.8;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;711
30.9;REFERENCES;712
31;Chapter 24 - Effect of Pig Slurry Application on Soil Organic Carbon;718
31.1;INTRODUCTION: IMPORTANCE OF SOIL ORGANIC MATTER;718
31.2;PIG SLURRY APPLICATION;719
31.3;EFFECT OF PIG SLURRY APPLICATION ON SOIL ORGANIC CARBON;720
31.4;CONCLUSIONS;730
31.5;REFERENCES;730
32;Index;736
33;Color Plates;754

Leseproben

Foreword

Land is a precious natural resource and base for agricultural sustainability and human civilization. Population growth, particularly the development of high-density urban populations leads to global industrialization and places major burdens on our environment, thereby considerably threatening environment sustainability. Contamination of soil mainly occurs due to release of industrial, urban and agricultural wastes generated by human activities. Controlled and uncontrolled solid discharge from industries, vehicle exhaustion, soluble salts, insecticides, pesticides, excessive use of fertilizers and heavy metals from organic and inorganic sources are environmental contaminants. These have resulted in build-up of chemical and biological containments throughout the biosphere, but most notably in soil and sediments. In addition to human-induced contamination of the environment, natural mineral deposits containing heavy metals are the major contaminants present in many regions of the globe.

Biological wastes and contaminants include raw and digested sewage, animal manures and vegetable wastes. However, microorganisms degrade or recycle these biological wastes into soil for agricultural benefits but increasing urbanization and continued expansion of cities require disposal of these materials far from cities. Traditional land disposal practices of biological wastes are often rendered uneconomic because of high transport costs. An additional problem regarding biological wastes is the risk of spread of infectious diseases when infected materials are applied to soil. Infected soil can facilitate disease transmission to plants, animals or humans who are directly or indirectly in contact with the soil.

Recent spreading out of the petroleum and chemical industries has resulted in the production of a wide range of organic and inorganic chemicals, which are considered major environmental pollutants. Among the chemical contaminants, inorganic contaminants being enriched with heavy metals are the most problematic for plants and humans. Industrial activities have also led to considerable contamination of soil and other media by enriching them with heavy metals, which have proven toxicity to both humans and animals. Contamination of soil and solid wastes with highly active radionuclides is another environmental risk with the potential for these metals to be radiotoxic to all life forms. Mention should also be made here of unwarranted concentrations of undesired chemicals mixed with commonly available inorganic fertilizers, such as nitrates, ammonia, phosphates, etc., which accumulate or contaminate water courses through run-off or air through volatilization. Although, several metals at their low levels are essential for normal functioning of metabolism, all metals are toxic to plants and other organisms when at higher concentrations. These heavy metals can easily replace essential metals associated with different pigments or enzymes, causing impairment of their functions.

Several legislative protocols have been framed aiming at reducing soil contaminants, but they are not so effective in controlling the contaminants. Many uncontrolled historical events like disposal of polychlorinated biphenyls by Hooker Company to the Love Canal area in Niagara Falls, and the dioxin crisis in Belgium, Italy and Bhopal caused miscarriages and birth abnormalities among the residents of affected areas. In addition, many chemicals have a great tendency to transfer from solid media to aqueous media and to be absorbed by plants or aquatic species.

The common remediation approaches being employed throughout the world to render soil enriched with toxic metals fit for use are based on the use of organic and inorganic chemicals. Some of the most common approaches are retention of toxicants within affected areas, degradation of organic contaminants by physico-chemical or biological means, and removal of contaminants from the soil. These approaches are being applied by an organization engaged in remediation to transform the contaminated soil into cultivable soil. Unfortunately, application of the above-stated strategies requires extensive earth moving and expensive machinery and infrastructure. For example, excavation of contaminated soil with heavy metals and offsite burial in landfill is not a suitable alternative, because it is just a shifting of the contamination problem somewhere else. Furthermore, non-biological processes have to bear heavy costs to remediate the entire known hazardous waste site worldwide. However, cost could be reduced substantially by using plants which are effective in phytoremediation.

Phytoremediation is the use of green plants to remove contaminants from contaminated sources such as soil, water, air and sediments. Generally, phytoremediation entails five processes of decontamination, for example rhizofiltration, phytostabilization, phytoextraction, phytovolatilization and phytodegradation. However, all these processes are meant for elimination of contaminants from soil and water, though to variable extents. Furthermore, these are the cost-effective and friendly techniques for cleaning the environment. Although thousands of species have been identified as heavy metal accumulators, there is a need to identify plants which can effectively phytoremediate the contaminated environment under the current scenario of climate change. The skill of selecting plant species, which can accumulate great amounts of heavy metals and are resistant to heavy metals, would facilitate reclamation of contaminated soils.

Phytoremediation is a hot topic being vigorously researched these days. Researchers, teachers and scholars engaged in the field of soil science, agronomy, ecology, botany, plant physiology, forestry, environmental chemistry, irrigation agriculture and biochemistry can greatly benefit from the detailed knowledge described in this book. Graduate and undergraduate students interested in phytoremediation may find this book to be a mandatory reference for their practical and theoretical study. Course instructors engaged with phytoremediation will find this book an adequate means to provide a fundamental background on the subject. I reviewed the book and a brief description is given below.

There are 24 chapters in the book written by the authors from 11 different countries. These cover topics like soil contamination with metals, different aspects of phytoremediation, evaluation of plants in phytoremediation, radioactive waste treatment and radionuclides in plants, plant–microbe interactions, pollution status of soils from different countries, heavy metal remediation, spatial mapping of metal-contaminated soils, organic amendments, soils polluted with oil hydrocarbons, role of serpentine flora and soil organic carbon.

A discussion on the different mechanisms plants adapt for remediation of metal-contaminated soils has been outlined at the start stressing the fact that an understanding of the inherently complex mechanisms is a prerequisite for developing suitable remediation techniques. This is followed by potential risks of heavy metals in soils, the role of plants in remediation, main limitations of phytoremediation and future prospects, and the sources and types of metal contamination in agricultural soils and the implications for the biosphere. Arsenic (As) is one of the oldest and most important poisons in the global environment and is becoming a serious threat for crop production. The chapter on this subject has summarized the work on As toxicity in relation to plants and environment. Authors have also discussed the progress made during last few decades to remediate the toxicity in soil, water, plant and food chains through different remediation technologies. Similarly studies on cadmium (Cd), being a promising ecotoxic metal, have been discussed at length because it poses inhibitory effects on plant metabolism, biodiversity, soil biological activity, and human and animal health. The strategies for the restriction of Cd entrance in grain crops by using different chemicals have been outlined. The role of Copper (Cu) as one of the most hazardous pollutants, particularly at higher concentrations has been included in the book, followed by the studies carried out in Malaysia which present results of assessing the phytoremediation potential of Jatropha curcas, Acacia mangium, Dyera costulata and Hopea odorata for Cu-contaminated soil. Soil contamination due to lead (Pb) warrants special attention because of its long-term retention in soil and hazardous effects on plant and human health. The role of synthetic chelators in the remediation of Pb-contaminated soils is given with a critical assessment of the risks and limitations associated with this technology. A chapter discussing the mechanisms of and factors affecting phytoremediation has also been included in the book.

A review of the role of phytoremediation in radioactive waste treatment has been presented as well as radionuclides in plants. Innovative new methodologies in this field and the different categories of phytoremediation techniques which may treat and control radioactive contaminated waste are addressed. The other chapter elaborates the scope and limitations of phytoremediation for radioactive contaminated soils. The authors have reviewed major sources of radioactive contaminants to soil and environment, possible role of phytoremediation, and post-remediation activities. This chapter concludes with implications for remediation of areas of extensive surface contamination. The transfer of heavy metals and radionuclides from soil to vegetables and plants in terms of transfer factor has been presented in a separate chapter. This factor is commonly...