Li / Webster Orthopedic Biomaterials

Advances and Applications
1. Auflage 2018
ISBN: 978-3-319-73664-8
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 614 Seiten

This book covers the latest advances, applications, and challenges in orthopedic biomaterials. Topics covered include materials for orthopedic applications, including nanomaterials, biomimetic materials, calcium phosphates, polymers, biodegradable metals, bone grafts/implants, and biomaterial-mediated drug delivery. Absorbable orthopedic biomaterials and challenges related to orthopedic biomaterials are covered in detail. This is an ideal book for graduate and undergraduate students, researchers, and professionals working with orthopedic biomaterials and tissue engineering. This book also:Describes biodegradable metals for orthopedic applications, such as Zn-based medical implantsThoroughly covers various materials for orthopedic applications, including absorbable orthopedic biomaterials with a focus on polymers Details the state-of-the-art research on orthopedic nanomaterials and nanotechnology

Bingyun Li is a full Professor with tenure at School of Medicine West Virginia University. He is a member of the Society for Biomaterials (SFB), Orthopedic Research Society (ORS), American Society for Microbiology (ASM), Materials Research Society (MRS), American Chemical Society (ACS), International Chinese Musculoskeletal Research Society (ICMRS), and Chinese Association for Biomaterials (CAB). Professor Li has served as topic chair of Infection and Inflammation of the ORS Program Committee, vice-chair and chair of Orthopedic Biomaterials Special Interest Group of SFB, Chief Editor of ICMRS Newsletter, and inaugural treasurer of CAB. Professor Li's research focuses on advanced materials, nanomedicine, infection, immunology, and drug delivery. He has supervised 84 trainees, and his lab group has published more than 76 peer-reviewed articles, nine book chapters, 12 provisional/full patents, and 122 abstracts. Professor Li has given 48 invited talks and has received multiple prestigious awards including the Berton Rahn Prize from AO Foundation, the Pfizer Best Scientific Paper Award from Asia Pacific Orthopedic Association, and the Collaborative Exchange Award from Orthopedic Research Society.Thomas Webster is the Chemical Engineering Department Chair and Art Zafiropoulo Endowed Chair at Northeastern University. Prof. Webster has graduated 144 students. His lab group published 9 textbooks, 48 book chapters, 403 articles, and 32 provisional/full patents. Prof. Webster has received numerous honors: 2012, Fellow, American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering; 2013, Fellow, Biomedical Engineering Society; 2015, Wenzhou 580 Award; 2015, Zheijang 1000 Talent Program; 2016, IMRC Chinese Academy of Science Lee-Hsun Lecture Award; 2016, Fellow, Biomaterials Science and Engineering; and 2016, Acta Biomaterialia Silver Award. He also frequently appears on the BBC, NBC, ABC, Fox, National Geographic, Discovery Channel and many other news outlets talking about science. Prof. Webster was also recently inducted as a Fellow into the National Academy of Inventors based on the formation of 11 companies with 4 FDA approved products in orthopedics.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Li, Bingyun

Webster, Thomas

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
1.1;What a Time for Orthopedic Biomaterial Research and Education!;5
2;Contents;7
3;Part I: Nanotechnology and Biomimetics;9
3.1;Orthopedic Nanomaterials;10
3.1.1;1 Introduction: Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials;10
3.1.2;2 Nanomaterials Enhanced Orthopedic Implants;13
3.1.2.1;2.1 Significance of the Orthopedic Nanomaterial Surface;16
3.1.3;3 Nanomaterials in Bone Tissue Engineering for Orthopedic Application;19
3.1.4;4 Toxicological Effect of the Nanomaterials for Orthopedic Applications;21
3.1.5;5 Characterization of Orthopedic Nanomaterials;23
3.1.5.1;5.1 Size, Shape and Topological Information;23
3.1.5.1.1;5.1.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy;23
3.1.5.1.2;5.1.2 Fluorescence Microscopy;25
3.1.5.1.3;5.1.3 Atomic Force Microscopy;25
3.1.5.2;5.2 Inner View, Crystal Structure, Chemical Information;26
3.1.5.2.1;5.2.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy;26
3.1.5.2.2;5.2.2 X-Ray Diffraction Spectroscopy;30
3.1.5.3;5.3 Chemical Bonding Information;30
3.1.5.3.1;5.3.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy;30
3.1.5.3.2;5.3.2 Raman Spectroscopy;31
3.1.6;6 Summary;31
3.1.7;References;32
3.2;Nanotechnology for Reducing Orthopedic Implant Infections: Synthesis, Characterization, and Properties;38
3.2.1;1 Introduction;38
3.2.1.1;1.1 Current Implants and Implantable Devices;38
3.2.2;2 Implant Biomaterials;39
3.2.2.1;2.1 Metals;40
3.2.2.2;2.2 Polymers;41
3.2.2.3;2.3 Ceramics;44
3.2.3;3 Problems with Conventional Implants;44
3.2.3.1;3.1 Host Response to Foreign Materials;45
3.2.3.2;3.2 Bacterial and Biofilm Infections;46
3.2.4;4 Where Bio Meet Nano: The Use of Nanotechnology in Implants;49
3.2.5;5 The Role of Surfaces in Biological Properties;50
3.2.5.1;5.1 The Effect of Nanotopography on Protein Adsorption;50
3.2.5.2;5.2 The Effect of Nanotopography on Cellular Functions;53
3.2.5.3;5.3 The Effect of Nanotopography on Bacterial Attachment;54
3.2.6;6 Nanofabrication Techniques;56
3.2.6.1;6.1 Nanolithography;56
3.2.6.2;6.2 Nanofabrication by Deposition Techniques;59
3.2.6.3;6.3 Nanofabrication by Self-assembly;60
3.2.7;7 Sensors;61
3.2.8;8 Conclusions;63
3.2.9;References;63
3.3;Orthopedic Applications of Silver and Silver Nanoparticles;70
3.3.1;1 Introduction;70
3.3.2;2 Antimicrobial Mechanisms, Delivery, and Metabolic Pathways of Ag;73
3.3.3;3 Ag Dressings;75
3.3.3.1;3.1 In Vitro and In Vivo Studies of Ag Dressings;76
3.3.3.2;3.2 Clinical Studies;78
3.3.4;4 Ag-Coated Prosthetic Implants;80
3.3.4.1;4.1 Ag-Coated External Fixation Pins: In Vitro, In Vivo, and Clinical Studies;81
3.3.4.1.1;4.1.1 In Vitro and In Vivo Studies;81
3.3.4.1.2;4.1.2 Clinical Studies;82
3.3.4.2;4.2 Ag-Coated Megaprostheses: In Vitro, In Vivo, and Clinical Studies;82
3.3.4.2.1;4.2.1 In Vitro and In Vivo Studies;83
3.3.4.2.2;4.2.2 Clinical Studies;83
3.3.5;5 Ag-Based Bone Cements;85
3.3.6;6 Summary;87
3.3.7;References;88
3.4;Formulation and Evaluation of Nanoenhanced Anti-bacterial Calcium Phosphate Bone Cements;91
3.4.1;1 Introduction;91
3.4.2;2 Materials;93
3.4.2.1;2.1 Materials;93
3.4.2.2;2.2 Antibiotics;93
3.4.3;3 Methods;98
3.4.3.1;3.1 Sample Preparation;98
3.4.3.2;3.2 HNT Loading;99
3.4.3.3;3.3 Formulation of CPCs;99
3.4.3.4;3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy;99
3.4.3.5;3.5 Material Testing;100
3.4.3.6;3.6 Drug Release Assay;101
3.4.3.7;3.7 Bacterial Culture;101
3.4.4;4 Results and Discussion;102
3.4.4.1;4.1 Morphology of CPC Scaffolds;102
3.4.4.2;4.2 Mechanical Properties;103
3.4.4.2.1;4.2.1 Compression Strength;103
3.4.4.2.2;4.2.2 Flexural Strength;105
3.4.4.3;4.3 Drug Release Profile;105
3.4.4.4;4.4 Bacterial Culture;106
3.4.5;5 Conclusions;110
3.4.6;6 Future Work;110
3.4.7;References;111
3.5;Biomimetic Orthopedic Materials;115
3.5.1;1 Introduction;115
3.5.2;2 Design Criteria for Engineering Biologically Inspired Orthopedic Materials;117
3.5.2.1;2.1 Biocompatibility;118
3.5.2.2;2.2 Biodegradability;119
3.5.2.3;2.3 Mechanical Properties;120
3.5.2.4;2.4 Microarchitecture;122
3.5.3;3 Nanofibrous Materials;123
3.5.3.1;3.1 Self-assembly;123
3.5.3.2;3.2 Electrospinning;124
3.5.3.3;3.3 Phase Separation;125
3.5.4;4 Composite and Nanocomposite Materials;126
3.5.5;5 Bulk and Surface Modification;126
3.5.6;6 Delivery of Bioactive Molecules;130
3.5.7;7 Biofabrication;132
3.5.7.1;7.1 3D Bioprinting;132
3.5.8;8 Current Challenges and Future Perspectives;136
3.5.9;References;137
3.6;Hydroxyapatite: Design with Nature;146
3.6.1;1 Biological Hydroxyapatite;146
3.6.2;2 Synthetic Methods;149
3.6.3;3 Cellular Response;151
3.6.3.1;3.1 Hydroxyapatite Bioceramic Induced Osteogenic Differentiation;152
3.6.3.2;3.2 HANPs Induced Cancer Cell Apoptosis;153
3.6.4;4 Applications;155
3.6.4.1;4.1 In the Form of Bioceramics for Orthopedic Reconstruction;156
3.6.4.2;4.2 Incorporation with Polymers as Scaffolds for Bone Substitution;157
3.6.4.3;4.3 Coating for Metallic Implants;159
3.6.4.4;4.4 Drug Delivery Carriers for Bone Formation;159
3.6.5;5 Conclusions;161
3.6.6;References;161
3.7;Calcium Phosphate Coatings for Metallic Orthopedic Biomaterials;171
3.7.1;1 Introduction;171
3.7.2;2 Metals for Biomedical Implant Applications;172
3.7.3;3 Surface Properties of the Implant Material;173
3.7.4;4 Calcium Phosphate Coatings on Biomedical Metals;175
3.7.4.1;4.1 Biocompatibility: Osteointegration;176
3.7.4.2;4.2 Corrosion Resistance;178
3.7.4.3;4.3 Antibacterial Property;179
3.7.5;5 Conclusion;182
3.7.6;References;183
4;Part II: Polymer Biomaterials;188
4.1;Collagen-Based Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications;189
4.1.1;1 Introduction;189
4.1.2;2 Bone Tissue Engineering;192
4.1.2.1;2.1 Crosslinking Techniques for Collagen Scaffolds;194
4.1.2.2;2.2 Collagen-Based Composite Materials;197
4.1.3;3 Collagen-Based Scaffold Fabrication Methods for Bone Tissue Engineering;200
4.1.3.1;3.1 Hydrogels;200
4.1.3.2;3.2 Plastic Compression;200
4.1.3.3;3.3 Freeze Drying;205
4.1.3.4;3.4 Compression Molding and Porogen Leaching;207
4.1.3.5;3.5 Electrospinning;208
4.1.3.6;3.6 Electrochemical Fabrication;210
4.1.4;4 In Vivo Bone Regeneration Using Collagen-Based Scaffolds;212
4.1.5;5 FDA Approved Collagen-Based Materials;215
4.1.6;6 Conclusions and Future Outlook;216
4.1.7;References;218
4.2;Poly(ethylene glycol) and Co-polymer Based-­Hydrogels for Craniofacial Bone Tissue Engineering;227
4.2.1;1 Introduction;227
4.2.2;2 2D Versus 3D Cell Culture and Response;230
4.2.3;3 PEG-Hydrogels for In Situ Cell Culture and Growth Factor Delivery;231
4.2.4;4 Cross-Linking Mechanisms of PEG-Hydrogels;232
4.2.4.1;4.1 Step-Growth Polymerization;232
4.2.4.2;4.2 Chain-Growth Polymerization;232
4.2.4.3;4.3 Mixed-Mode Polymerization;233
4.2.5;5 Bioactive Modifications of PEG-Hydrogels for Craniofacial Tissue Engineering Applications;235
4.2.6;6 Degradation Behavior of PEG-Hydrogel Scaffolds;235
4.2.7;7 Poly(ethylene glycol) Diacrylate (PEGDA) for Craniofacial Tissue Engineering Applications;237
4.2.7.1;7.1 Designing Fast-Degrading Visible Light-Cured Thiol-­Acrylate Hydrogels for Craniofacial Tissue Engineering;238
4.2.7.2;7.2 BMP2-Loaded Visible Light Cured Thiol-Acrylate Hydrogels;240
4.2.7.3;7.3 Biodegradable Visible Light Cured Thiol-Acrylate Hydrogel as a Stem-Cell Carrier for Craniofacial Bone Tissue Engineering;243
4.2.8;8 Conclusion and Future Insight;244
4.2.9;References;245
4.3;Peptides as Orthopedic Biomaterials;249
4.3.1;1 Introduction;249
4.3.2;2 Pathways for Peptide Delivery;250
4.3.3;3 Peptides for Orthopedic Applications;254
4.3.3.1;3.1 Antimicrobial Peptides;254
4.3.3.2;3.2 Tissue Engineering;259
4.3.3.3;3.3 Arthritis;263
4.3.3.4;3.4 Bone Tumor;263
4.3.3.5;3.5 Biomarkers for Diagnostic;264
4.3.3.6;3.6 Miscellaneous;265
4.3.4;4 Challenges;265
4.3.5;5 Summary;266
4.3.6;References;267
5;Part III: Degradable Metal Biomaterials;274
5.1;Biodegradable Metals for Orthopedic Applications;275
5.1.1;1 Introduction;275
5.1.2;2 Biodegradable Mg Based Metals;276
5.1.2.1;2.1 Biodegradation Reaction;277
5.1.2.2;2.2 Key Factors;277
5.1.2.2.1;2.2.1 Effect of Body Environment on Degradation Behavior of Mg Based Metals;277
5.1.2.2.2;2.2.2 Effect of In Vivo on Stress Corrosion Behavior of Mg Based Metals;278
5.1.2.2.3;2.2.3 Effect of Other Features on Corrosion Behavior of Mg Based Metals;278
5.1.2.3;2.3 Biofunctions;279
5.1.2.3.1;2.3.1 Promoting Osteogenesis Function;279
5.1.2.3.2;2.3.2 Antimicrobial;283
5.1.2.3.3;2.3.3 Inhibiting Tumor Cell Survival;285
5.1.3;3 Applications for Orthopedics;288
5.1.3.1;3.1 Bone Fixation;288
5.1.3.2;3.2 Bone Substitute;292
5.1.3.3;3.3 Osteomyelitis Treatment;297
5.1.3.4;3.4 Mg Coating;298
5.1.4;4 Conclusions;301
5.1.5;References;302
5.2;Development of Biodegradable Zn-Based Medical Implants;310
5.2.1;1 Introduction;310
5.2.2;2 Pure Zn;311
5.2.3;3 Zn-Based Binary Alloy;314
5.2.3.1;3.1 Microstructures;314
5.2.3.2;3.2 Mechanical Properties;314
5.2.3.3;3.3 Degradation Behavior;315
5.2.3.4;3.4 Biocompatibility;317
5.2.3.4.1;3.4.1 In vitro;317
5.2.3.4.2;3.4.2 In vivo;318
5.2.4;4 Zn-Based Ternary Alloy;320
5.2.4.1;4.1 Microstructures;320
5.2.4.2;4.2 Mechanical Properties;322
5.2.4.3;4.3 Degradation Behavior;322
5.2.4.4;4.4 Biocompatibility;323
5.2.5;5 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives;326
5.2.6;References;326
5.3;Surface Modification and Coatings for Controlling the Degradation and Bioactivity of Magnesium Alloys for Medical Applications;329
5.3.1;1 Introduction;329
5.3.1.1;1.1 Magnesium and the Current Orthopedic Materials;329
5.3.1.2;1.2 There Is No Such Thing as Permanent Implants;330
5.3.1.3;1.3 Why Use Biodegradable Implants?;330
5.3.1.4;1.4 The Advantages of Magnesium;330
5.3.1.5;1.5 The Challenges of Magnesium;331
5.3.1.6;1.6 Coatings Can Address Many Challenges;334
5.3.2;2 Substrate Preparations;335
5.3.3;3 Structure and Physical Properties of Coatings;336
5.3.4;4 Surface Modification of Magnesium;338
5.3.4.1;4.1 Chemical Surface Modification;338
5.3.4.2;4.2 Anodization;339
5.3.4.3;4.3 Micro-Arc Oxidation;339
5.3.5;5 Deposited Coatings;339
5.3.5.1;5.1 Calcium Phosphate Coatings;340
5.3.5.2;5.2 Polymer Coatings;341
5.3.5.2.1;5.2.1 Commonly Used Polymer Coatings;341
5.3.5.2.2;5.2.2 Overview of Polymer Properties;343
5.3.5.2.3;5.2.3 Methods of Depositing Polymer Coatings;345
5.3.5.2.3.1;Dip Coating;345
5.3.5.2.3.2;Spin Coating;346
5.3.5.2.3.3;Electrospinning;346
5.3.5.2.3.4;Electrodeposition;346
5.3.6;6 Composite Coatings;347
5.3.6.1;6.1 Hydroxyapatite Composite Coatings;347
5.3.6.2;6.2 Polymer Coatings and Surface Modifications;349
5.3.7;7 Incorporation of Bioactive Factors into Coatings;349
5.3.8;8 Summary;350
5.3.9;References;350
6;Part IV: Biomaterial Implants and Devices;362
6.1;Materials for Orthopedic Applications;363
6.1.1;1 Orthopedic Implant Devices for Prolonged and Permanent Contact;363
6.1.1.1;1.1 Bone Attachment Devices and Stabilizers;367
6.1.1.2;1.2 Artificial Joints;374
6.1.1.3;1.3 Artificial Ligaments and Tendons;381
6.1.1.4;1.4 Artificial Spine Devices;383
6.1.1.5;1.5 Biologics and Tissue Regeneration Inducers;387
6.1.2;2 Implant Delivery Systems and Surgical Instrumentations;391
6.1.3;3 Conclusion and Future Directions;392
6.1.4;References;392
6.2;Composite Orthopedic Fixation Devices;395
6.2.1;1 Introduction;395
6.2.2;2 Development of Internal Fixation Devices;397
6.2.2.1;2.1 Implant Design;397
6.2.2.2;2.2 Tissue Interactions and Cytotoxicity;400
6.2.3;3 Current Metal Fixation Plates;400
6.2.4;4 Composite Fixation Devices;403
6.2.4.1;4.1 Non-Load-Bearing Composites;404
6.2.4.2;4.2 Composites for Load-Bearing Fractures;409
6.2.4.2.1;4.2.1 Resorbable Polymer-Based Composites;409
6.2.4.2.2;4.2.2 Partially Resorbable Composites;415
6.2.4.2.3;4.2.3 Resorbable Metals;415
6.2.5;5 Conclusions;416
6.2.6;References;417
6.3;PEEK Titanium Composite (PTC) for Spinal Implants;422
6.3.1;1 Introduction;423
6.3.2;2 Manufacturing and Applications;424
6.3.2.1;2.1 Manufacturing;424
6.3.2.2;2.2 PTC Applications;426
6.3.3;3 Mechanical Properties;426
6.3.3.1;3.1 Methods;426
6.3.3.1.1;3.1.1 Testing Setup;426
6.3.3.1.2;3.1.2 Statistical Analysis;428
6.3.3.2;3.2 Results;429
6.3.4;4 Surface Topographic Characterization;430
6.3.4.1;4.1 Methods;430
6.3.4.2;4.2 Results;431
6.3.5;5 In Vitro Studies;433
6.3.5.1;5.1 Characterization of Ti 2D and 3D Substrates with SAOS2 Cells;433
6.3.5.1.1;5.1.1 Methods;433
6.3.5.1.1.1;Substrates;433
6.3.5.1.1.2;Cells;434
6.3.5.1.1.3;Cell Seeding and Culture;434
6.3.5.1.1.4;Evaluation of Cell Viability and Morphology on Ti Substrates;435
6.3.5.1.1.5;Rabbit Polyclonal Antisera and Purified Proteins;435
6.3.5.1.1.6;Extraction of ECM Proteins from the Cultured Substrates and ELISA;436
6.3.5.1.1.7;Indirect Immunofluorescence Staining;436
6.3.5.1.1.8;ALP Activity;437
6.3.5.1.1.9;Statistical Analysis;437
6.3.5.1.2;5.1.2 Results;437
6.3.5.1.2.1;SAOS2 Cell Viability and Morphology;437
6.3.5.1.2.2;Characterization of the Bone Matrix Deposition;438
6.3.5.2;5.2 Characterization of Ti 3D and PEEK Substrates with Human MG63 Cells;439
6.3.5.2.1;5.2.1 Methods;439
6.3.5.2.1.1;Substrates;439
6.3.5.2.1.2;Cells and Assays;440
6.3.5.2.1.3;Statistical Analysis;440
6.3.5.2.2;5.2.2 Results;441
6.3.5.2.2.1;Comparisons of Secretions from Ti/PEEK Substrate Versus Control Surfaces;441
6.3.5.2.2.2;Comparisons of Secretions from Ti 3D Versus PEEK Surfaces;442
6.3.6;6 In Vivo Animal Studies;442
6.3.6.1;6.1 Characterization of Ti 3D and PEEK Substrates in a Rabbit Animal Model;442
6.3.6.1.1;6.1.1 Methods;442
6.3.6.1.1.1;Substrates for Implantation;442
6.3.6.1.1.2;Animals;443
6.3.6.1.1.3;Surgery;443
6.3.6.1.1.4;Assessment;443
6.3.6.1.1.5;Statistical Analysis;444
6.3.6.1.2;6.1.2 Results;444
6.3.6.1.2.1;Bone Apposition and Ingrowth in the Cortical Region;444
6.3.6.1.2.2;Biocompatibility and Irritancy;445
6.3.6.2;6.2 Evaluation of a PTC Interbody Device in an Ovine Lumbar Fusion Model;445
6.3.6.2.1;6.2.1 Methods;445
6.3.6.2.1.1;Animals, Devices and Surgery;445
6.3.6.2.1.2;Assessments;446
6.3.6.2.1.3;Statistical Analysis;448
6.3.6.2.2;6.2.2 Results;449
6.3.6.2.2.1;Animal Health;449
6.3.6.2.2.2;Biomechanical Properties;449
6.3.6.2.2.3;MicroCT;450
6.3.6.2.2.4;Histology;450
6.3.6.2.2.5;Fusion Score;452
6.3.7;7 Discussions;452
6.3.8;8 Conclusions;456
6.3.9;References;456
6.4;Advances in Bearing Materials for Total Artificial Hip Arthroplasty;461
6.4.1;1 Introduction;461
6.4.2;2 History of the Development of Artificial Hip Joints;462
6.4.3;3 Ultra-high Molecular Weight Polyethylene;462
6.4.4;4 Metallic Materials;463
6.4.5;5 Ceramics;464
6.4.5.1;5.1 Alumina;464
6.4.5.2;5.2 Zirconia;465
6.4.5.3;5.3 Silicon nitride;466
6.4.5.4;5.4 Alumina-Zirconia Composites;466
6.4.6;6 Ultra-hard Coatings on Metals;468
6.4.7;7 Oxinium™;469
6.4.8;8 Rationale for the Design of a New Kind of Ceramic/Metal Hybrid Artificial Joint;470
6.4.8.1;8.1 Selection and Design of Materials;470
6.4.8.2;8.2 Rationale for the New Design of an Artificial Hip Joint;471
6.4.8.3;8.3 Science and Technology of a Dense ?-alumina Layer on the Ti Alloy;472
6.4.8.3.1;8.3.1 Formation of Al Layer on the Ti Alloy Substrate;473
6.4.8.3.2;8.3.2 Formation of Reaction Layer at the Alumina-Ti Alloy Interface;473
6.4.8.3.3;8.3.3 Formation of an Alumina Layer on the Ti Alloy Substrate;475
6.4.8.3.4;8.3.4 Adhesion of an Alumina Layer with the Ti Alloy Substrate;479
6.4.8.3.5;8.3.5 Dense Alumina Layer on a Ti Alloy by Cold Metal Transfer and MAO Methods;480
6.4.9;9 Summary and Conclusions;482
6.4.10;References;483
6.5;Bone Grafts and Bone Substitutes for Bone Defect Management;489
6.5.1;1 Introduction;489
6.5.2;2 Bone Grafts and Substitutes for Bone Defect Treatments;490
6.5.2.1;2.1 Natural Bone Grafts;491
6.5.2.1.1;2.1.1 Autologous Bone Grafts;491
6.5.2.1.2;2.1.2 Allogeneic Bone Grafts;493
6.5.2.2;2.2 Synthetic Bone Graft Substitutes;494
6.5.2.2.1;2.2.1 Calcium Sulfate;495
6.5.2.2.2;2.2.2 Calcium Phosphate Ceramics (CaP Ceramics);495
6.5.2.2.3;2.2.3 Calcium Phosphate Cements (CPC);497
6.5.2.2.4;2.2.4 Bioactive Glass;498
6.5.2.2.5;2.2.5 Poly(Methyl Methacrylate) (PMMA) Bone Cement;500
6.5.3;3 The Adoption of Growth Factors on Bone Defect Management;501
6.5.3.1;3.1 Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs);501
6.5.3.2;3.2 Fibroblast Growth Factors (FGFs);504
6.5.3.3;3.3 Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF);504
6.5.3.4;3.4 Parathyroid Hormone (PTH);505
6.5.3.5;3.5 Platelet-Rich Plasma (PRP);507
6.5.4;4 The Adoption of Bioinorganic Ions on Bone Regeneration;508
6.5.4.1;4.1 Silicon (Si);508
6.5.4.2;4.2 Strontium (Sr);512
6.5.4.3;4.3 Magnesium (mg);515
6.5.4.4;4.4 Zinc (Zn);519
6.5.4.5;4.5 Copper (Cu);520
6.5.4.6;4.6 Other Ions;520
6.5.5;5 Conclusion and Future Directions;522
6.5.6;References;523
6.6;Novel Composites for Human Meniscus Replacement;540
6.6.1;1 Introduction;540
6.6.2;2 Methods;541
6.6.2.1;2.1 Design of the Mold;541
6.6.2.2;2.2 Composite Preparation;541
6.6.2.3;2.3 Mechanical Evaluation;543
6.6.2.4;2.4 Microstructural Analysis;544
6.6.2.5;2.5 Meniscal Prosthesis Production;544
6.6.2.5.1;2.5.1 Injection Molding Machine;544
6.6.2.5.2;2.5.2 Meniscal Prosthesis Fabrication;545
6.6.2.6;2.6 Friction and Wear Tests of Meniscal Prosthesis;546
6.6.2.6.1;2.6.1 Experimental Technique;546
6.6.2.6.2;2.6.2 Description of the Test;547
6.6.2.6.3;2.6.3 Friction Measurements;548
6.6.2.6.4;2.6.4 Wear Measurements;549
6.6.2.7;2.7 Surface Characterization;549
6.6.3;3 Results and Discussion;551
6.6.3.1;3.1 Tensile and Compression Tests;551
6.6.3.2;3.2 Friction Test for the Produced Meniscal Prosthesis;553
6.6.3.3;3.3 Wear Test of the Produced Meniscus;557
6.6.4;4 Conclusion;559
6.6.5;References;559
6.7;Biomaterial-Mediated Drug Delivery in Primary and Metastatic Cancers of the Bone;562
6.7.1;1 Introduction;562
6.7.2;2 Classifications of Cancers That Affect the Bone;564
6.7.2.1;2.1 Primary Bone Cancer;564
6.7.2.2;2.2 Bone Metastatic Disease;565
6.7.3;3 Bone Biology and Remodelling;565
6.7.4;4 The Pathophysiology of Bone Metastatic Disease;568
6.7.5;5 Diagnosis and Treatment;571
6.7.6;6 Application of Biomaterials in Primary and Metastatic Cancers Affecting the Bone;573
6.7.6.1;6.1 Biomaterials in Drug Delivery;573
6.7.6.1.1;6.1.1 Drug Delivery in Primary and Metastatic Cancers Affecting the Bone;573
6.7.6.1.2;6.1.2 Polymeric Biomaterials in Drug Delivery;574
6.7.6.1.3;6.1.3 Inorganic Biomaterials in Drug Delivery;576
6.7.6.2;6.2 Targeted-Drug Delivery;578
6.7.6.2.1;6.2.1 Increasing Successful Localisation;578
6.7.6.2.2;6.2.2 Smart Drug Delivery;579
6.7.6.2.3;6.2.3 Targeting Moieties;580
6.7.7;7 Techniques to Augment Delivery;584
6.7.8;8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives;587
6.7.9;References;589
7;Index;598