Moseley / Garche Electrochemical Energy Storage for Renewable Sources and Grid Balancing

1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-444-62610-3
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 492 Seiten

Electricity from renewable sources of energy is plagued by fluctuations (due to variations in wind strength or the intensity of insolation) resulting in a lack of stability if the energy supplied from such sources is used in 'real time'. An important solution to this problem is to store the energy electrochemically (in a secondary battery or in hydrogen and its derivatives) and to make use of it in a controlled fashion at some time after it has been initially gathered and stored. Electrochemical battery storage systems are the major technologies for decentralized storage systems and hydrogen is the only solution for long-term storage systems to provide energy during extended periods of low wind speeds or solar insolation. Future electricity grid design has to include storage systems as a major component for grid stability and for security of supply. The technology of systems designed to achieve this regulation of the supply of renewable energy, and a survey of the markets that they will serve, is the subject of this book. It includes economic aspects to guide the development of technology in the right direction. - Provides state-of-the-art information on all of the storage systems together with an assessment of competing technologies - Features detailed technical, economic and environmental impact information of different storage systems - Contains information about the challenges that must be faced for batteries and hydrogen-storage to be used in conjunction with a fluctuating (renewable energy) power supply

Autoren/Hrsg.

Moseley, Patrick T.

Garche, Jürgen

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front
Cover;1
2;Electrochemical Energy Storage for Renewable Sources and
Grid Balancing;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Contents;6
5;Contributors;14
6;Foreword by Dr. Derek Pooley;16
7;Preface;18
8;Part I -
Introduction – Renewable Energies, Markets and Storage Technology Classification;20
8.1;Chapter 1 - The Exploitation of Renewable Sources of Energy for Power Generation;22
8.1.1;1.1 ENERGY AND SOCIETY;22
8.1.2;1.2 ENERGY AND ELECTRICITY;23
8.1.3;1.3 THE ROLE OF ENERGY STORAGE;26
8.1.4;1.4 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS;27
8.1.5;1.5 TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF ENERGY STORAGE;28
8.1.6;1.6 COMMERCIALIZATION OF ENERGY STORAGE;30
8.1.7;REFERENCES;30
8.2;Chapter 2 - Classification of Storage Systems;32
8.2.1;2.1 INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION;32
8.2.2;2.2 FLEXIBILITY OPTIONS;33
8.2.3;2.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CLASSIFICATIONS;33
8.2.4;2.4 CONCLUSION;40
8.3;Chapter 3 - Challenges of Power Systems;42
8.3.1;3.1 POWER SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS;42
8.3.2;3.2 THE ROLE OF STORAGE SYSTEMS FOR FUTURE CHALLENGES IN THE ELECTRICAL NETWORK;43
8.3.3;3.3 DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT AND OTHER ALTERNATIVES TO STORAGE SYSTEMS;45
8.3.4;3.4 SUPPLY OF RESERVE POWER;48
8.3.5;REFERENCES;51
8.4;Chapter 4 - Applications and Markets for Grid-Connected Storage Systems;52
8.4.1;4.1 INTRODUCTION;52
8.4.2;4.2 FREQUENCY CONTROL;54
8.4.3;4.3 SELF-SUPPLY;61
8.4.4;4.4 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY;65
8.4.5;4.5 ARBITRAGE/ENERGY TRADING;67
8.4.6;4.6 LOAD LEVELING/PEAK SHAVING;69
8.4.7;4.7 OTHER MARKETS AND APPLICATIONS;69
8.4.8;REFERENCES;71
8.5;Chapter 5 - Existing Markets for Storage Systems in Off-Grid Applications;72
8.5.1;5.1 DIFFERENT SOURCES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY;72
8.5.2;5.2 IMPACT OF THE USER;73
8.6;Chapter 6 - Review of the Need for Storage Capacity Depending on the Share of Renewable Energies;80
8.6.1;6.1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS;80
8.6.2;6.2 SELECTED STUDIES WITH GERMAN FOCUS;82
8.6.3;6.3 SELECTED STUDIES WITH EUROPEAN FOCUS;90
8.6.4;6.4 DISCUSSION OF STUDY RESULTS;96
8.6.5;6.5 CONCLUSIONS;103
8.6.6;ABBREVIATIONS;104
8.6.7;REFERENCES;104
9;Part II -
Storage Technologies;106
9.1;Chapter 7 - Overview of Nonelectrochemical Storage Technologies;108
9.1.1;7.1 INTRODUCTION;108
9.1.2;7.2 ‘ELECTRICAL’ STORAGE SYSTEMS;109
9.1.3;7.3 ‘MECHANICAL’ STORAGE SYSTEMS;111
9.1.4;7.4 ‘THERMOELECTRIC’ ENERGY STORAGE;118
9.1.5;7.5 STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES AT THE CONCEPT STAGE;119
9.1.6;7.6 SUMMARY;120
9.1.7;REFERENCES;121
9.2;Chapter 8 - Hydrogen Production from Renewable Energies—Electrolyzer Technologies;122
9.2.1;8.1 INTRODUCTION;122
9.2.2;8.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF WATER ELECTROLYSIS;124
9.2.3;8.3 ALKALINE WATER ELECTROLYSIS;128
9.2.4;8.4 PEM WATER ELECTROLYSIS;133
9.2.5;8.5 HIGH-TEMPERATURE WATER ELECTROLYSIS;139
9.2.6;8.6 MANUFACTURERS AND DEVELOPERS OF ELECTROLYZERS;143
9.2.7;8.7 COST ISSUES;144
9.2.8;8.8 SUMMARY;145
9.2.9;ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS;145
9.2.10;REFERENCES;146
9.3;Chapter 9 - Large-Scale Hydrogen Energy Storage;148
9.3.1;9.1 INTRODUCTION;148
9.3.2;9.2 ELECTROLYZER;150
9.3.3;9.3 HYDROGEN GAS STORAGE;151
9.3.4;9.4 RECONVERSION OF THE HYDROGEN INTO ELECTRICITY;155
9.3.5;9.5 COST ISSUES: LEVELIZED COST OF ENERGY;158
9.3.6;9.6 ACTUAL STATUS AND OUTLOOK;160
9.3.7;ACKNOWLEDGMENT;161
9.3.8;REFERENCES;161
9.4;Chapter 10 - Hydrogen Conversion into Electricity and Thermal Energy by Fuel Cells: Use of H2-Systems and Batteries;162
9.4.1;10.1 INTRODUCTION;162
9.4.2;10.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL POWER SOURCES;163
9.4.3;10.3 HYDROGEN-BASED ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS;164
9.4.4;10.4 ENERGY FLOW IN THE HYDROGEN ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM;168
9.4.5;10.5 DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS;170
9.4.6;10.6 CASE STUDY: A GENERAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM LAYOUT FOR MAXIMIZED USE OF RENEWABLE ENERGIES;171
9.4.7;10.7 CASE STUDY OF A PV-BASED SYSTEM MINIMIZING GRID INTERACTION;172
9.4.8;10.8 CONCLUSIONS;174
9.4.9;10.9 SUMMARY;176
9.4.10;REFERENCES;176
9.5;Chapter 11 - PEM Electrolyzers and PEM Regenerative Fuel Cells Industrial View;178
9.5.1;11.1 INTRODUCTION;178
9.5.2;11.2 GENERAL TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION;179
9.5.3;11.3 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE AND LIFETIME;188
9.5.4;11.4 NECESSARY ACCESSORIES;192
9.5.5;11.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;193
9.5.6;11.6 COST ISSUES;194
9.5.7;11.7 ACTUAL STATUS;197
9.5.8;11.8 SUMMARY;199
9.5.9;REFERENCES;199
9.6;Chapter 12 - Energy Carriers Made from Hydrogen;202
9.6.1;12.1 INTRODUCTION;202
9.6.2;12.2 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION;204
9.6.3;12.3 METHANE;207
9.6.4;12.4 METHANOL;209
9.6.5;12.5 DIMETHYL ETHER;210
9.6.6;12.6 FISCHER–TROPSCH SYNFUELS;211
9.6.7;12.7 HIGHER ALCOHOLS AND ETHERS;214
9.6.8;12.8 AMMONIA;215
9.6.9;12.9 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK;216
9.6.10;ABBREVIATIONS;217
9.6.11;REFERENCES;217
9.7;Chapter 13 - Energy Storage with Lead–Acid Batteries;220
9.7.1;13.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF LEAD–ACID TECHNOLOGY;220
9.7.2;13.2 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE AND AGING;226
9.7.3;13.3 BATTERY MANAGEMENT;229
9.7.4;13.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;231
9.7.5;13.5 COST ISSUES;232
9.7.6;13.6 PAST/PRESENT APPLICATIONS, ACTIVITIES AND MARKETS;232
9.7.7;ACRONYMS AND INITIALISMS;240
9.7.8;SYMBOLS;241
9.7.9;FURTHER READING;241
9.8;Chapter 14 - Nickel–Cadmium and Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery Energy Storage;242
9.8.1;14.1 INTRODUCTION;242
9.8.2;14.2 NI-CD AND NI-MH TECHNOLOGIES;243
9.8.3;14.3 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE AND LIFETIME AND AGING ASPECTS;255
9.8.4;14.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS;260
9.8.5;14.5 ACTUAL STATUS;262
9.8.6;14.6 CONCLUSION;269
9.8.7;FURTHER READING;269
9.9;Chapter 15 - High-Temperature Sodium Batteries for Energy Storage;272
9.9.1;15.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE SODIUM BATTERY TECHNOLOGY;272
9.9.2;15.2 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE AND AGING;277
9.9.3;15.3 BATTERY MANAGEMENT;280
9.9.4;15.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;281
9.9.5;15.5 COST ISSUES;283
9.9.6;15.6 CURRENT STATUS;284
9.9.7;15.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS;286
9.9.8;ACRONYMS AND INITIALISMS;286
9.9.9;SYMBOLS AND UNITS;286
9.9.10;REFERENCES;286
9.9.11;FURTHER READING;287
9.10;Chapter 16 - Lithium Battery Energy Storage: State of the Art Including Lithium–Air and Lithium–Sulfur Systems;288
9.10.1;16.1 ENERGY STORAGE IN LITHIUM BATTERIES;289
9.10.2;16.2 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE, LIFETIME, AND AGING;309
9.10.3;16.3 ACCESSORIES;312
9.10.4;16.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;317
9.10.5;16.5 COST ISSUES;318
9.10.6;16.6 STATE OF THE ART;320
9.10.7;ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS;325
9.10.8;REFERENCES;325
9.11;Chapter 17 - Redox Flow Batteries;328
9.11.1;17.1 INTRODUCTION;328
9.11.2;17.2 FLOW BATTERY CHEMISTRIES;329
9.11.3;17.3 COST CONSIDERATIONS;354
9.11.4;17.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS;354
9.11.5;REFERENCES;355
9.11.6;FURTHER READINGS;355
9.12;Chapter 18 - Metal Storage/Metal Air (Zn, Fe, Al, Mg);356
9.12.1;18.1 GENERAL TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE TECHNOLOGY;356
9.12.2;18.2 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE, LIFETIME, AND AGING ASPECTS;359
9.12.3;18.3 NECESSARY ACCESSORIES;361
9.12.4;18.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;362
9.12.5;18.5 COST ISSUES (TODAY, IN 5YEARS, AND IN 10YEARS);362
9.12.6;18.6 ACTUAL STATUS;363
9.12.7;FURTHER READING;363
9.13;Chapter 19 - Electrochemical Double-layer Capacitors;364
9.13.1;19.1 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION;365
9.13.2;19.2 ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE, LIFETIME, AND AGING ASPECTS;401
9.13.3;19.3 ACCESSORIES;415
9.13.4;19.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;416
9.13.5;19.5 COST ISSUES;417
9.13.6;19.6 ACTUAL STATUS;418
9.13.7;SYMBOLS AND UNITS;424
9.13.8;ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS;425
9.13.9;FURTHER READING;425
9.13.10;FURTHER READING;425
9.13.11;FURTHER READING;425
10;Part III -
System Aspects;428
10.1;Chapter 20 - Battery Management and Battery Diagnostics;430
10.1.1;20.1 INTRODUCTION;430
10.1.2;20.2 BATTERY PARAMETERS—MONITORING AND CONTROL;431
10.1.3;20.3 BATTERY MANAGEMENT OF ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS;437
10.1.4;20.4 BATTERY DIAGNOSTICS;448
10.1.5;20.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF BATTERY MANAGEMENT AND BATTERY DIAGNOSTICS;451
10.1.6;20.6 CONCLUSIONS;453
10.1.7;REFERENCES;453
10.2;Chapter 21 - Life Cycle Cost Calculation and Comparison for Different Reference Cases and Market Segments;456
10.2.1;21.1 MOTIVATION;456
10.2.2;21.2 METHODOLOGY;457
10.2.3;21.3 REFERENCE CASES;463
10.2.4;21.4 EXAMPLE RESULTS;464
10.2.5;21.5 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS;469
10.3;Chapter 22 - ‘Double Use’ of Storage Systems;472
10.3.1;22.1 INTRODUCTION;472
10.3.2;22.2 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS;472
10.3.3;22.3 ELECTRIC VEHICLE BATTERIES—VEHICLE TO GRID;473
10.3.4;22.4 PHOTOVOLTAIC HOME STORAGE;478
10.3.5;22.5 SECOND LIFE OF VEHICLE BATTERIES;480
10.3.6;REFERENCES;482
11;Index;484

Leseproben

Chapter 2

Classification of Storage Systems

Dirk Uwe Sauer     Institute for Power Electronics and Electrical Drives (ISEA), RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany     Institute for Power Generation and Storage Systems (PGS), E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany     Jülich Aachen Research Alliance, JARA Energy, Deutschland, Germany

Abstract

There are numerous storage technologies and flexibility options to serve the balancing between demand and supply. Even for 100% renewable energy scenarios a sufficient range of technologies is available to solve the storage demands.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to classify the different storage technologies and flexibility options into different categories. This is important especially from an application's point of view, because not any storage technology can be applied in any application. The systematic classifications presented in this chapter help to compare only those technologies for a certain application, grid level and service demand, which are really of relevance for a given problem and which can compete in the same market.

Keywords

Classification; Flexibility options; Negative control power; Positive control power; Storage systems

Chapter Outline

2.1 Introduction and Motivation 13

2.2 Flexibility Options 14

2.3 Different Types of Classifications 14

2.3.1 Classification According to the Needs of the Grid 15

2.3.1.1 ‘Electricity to Electricity’ Storage Technologies 15

2.3.1.2 ‘Electricity to Anything’ Flexibility Options 15

2.3.1.3 ‘Anything to Electricity’ Flexibility Options 16

2.3.2 Classification According to the Supply Time of the Storage System 16

2.3.3 Classification as Single-purpose and Double-use Storage Systems 18

2.3.4 Classification According to the Position in the Grid and the Service Offers 18

2.4 Conclusion 21

2.1. Introduction and Motivation

There is a very wide variety of storage technologies for stationary applications, but no technology is suited to serve all applications. A comparison of storage technologies makes sense only with respect to a certain application. Comparison is very difficult anyway, because of the numerous parameters that define the technical and economical performance of a storage system (see also Chapter 21).

Therefore it is necessary to use classification systems. Generally the classification can be made based on the way energy is stored, e.g., mechanical, electrical, or chemical. However, from an application point of view it makes more sense to classify the storage technologies according to the services they can offer to the markets. Technologies within such a class are in competition to each other, because they must earn their money in the same market under similar conditions.

For stationary applications, in contrast to mobile applications, energy density and power density are of minor importance. Therefore the well-known sorting of technologies according to the Ragone diagram has little meaning in stationary applications, and is not used here.

When classifying storage technologies, it automatically turns out that a broader view is necessary. Grid applications do not need storage systems; they need flexibility options to meet the requirements of an efficient, reliable, and safe grid operation. Storage systems are one option in the portfolio of flexibility options and they are in competition with all other technologies. Surely storage systems are the smartest solution for the flexibility demand, but they are not necessarily the cheapest. Therefore, storage technologies and the demand for storage systems need to be discussed in the context of the flexibility options. Even though this book focuses on the description of storage technologies, other flexibility options and their potential for the grid service market are described briefly in this chapter.

When discussing flexibility options it becomes obvious that thermal storage systems and gas storage systems need to be discussed as well (Figure 2.1). Storage systems, which deliver electrical energy, are the technology of choice if electrical energy is required by the end user. If the end user requires heat or gas, energy should be converted as soon as possible into the respective form of energy and should be stored therein. Gas as well as heat storage systems are significantly cheaper than electrical storage systems. Whereas gas is also cheap to transport, heat transport is very expensive and therefore heat should be generated close to the location where it is needed. Furthermore, it is worth taking into account the mobility market, which can serve as a storage system either for gas (for vehicles with combustion engines) or electricity (for electric vehicles).

FIGURE 2.1 Intersectoral connection of energy systems.

Finally, from the electrical grids' point of view, generating and storing gas is a flexibility option as well as generating and storing heat.

2.2. Flexibility Options

To operate a power grid it is necessary to balance, at any point in time demand and supply of electrical energy. As the electricity grid has no storage capacity on its own, it is essential to have very fast reacting technologies available to achieve the balancing. Generally positive as well as negative control power is required.

Positive control power is needed if the demand is higher than the supply. It can be delivered either by feeding additional power to the grid, e.g., from any type of power generator or from a storage system or by shutting down energy consumers. Reducing or shutting down power consumption in industry for a certain while is an example for positive control power. But also stopping charging a storage system is a load reduction and therefore positive control power. If, e.g., large quantities of electrical vehicles are on the grid to get charged, any reduction in charging power and shift of the charge to a later point in time is positive control power.

Negative control power is needed if the power supply exceeds the demand. It can be delivered either by reducing the output power of power generators or by increasing the demand. Electrical space heating systems and generating hydrogen by means of electrolysis are two of the demand-side management options that deliver negative control power. But also starting charging of storage systems is negative control power. A reduction of the output power saves fuel in conventional power plants, but results in wasting energy for renewable power generators. Therefore any way to use this energy by means of demand-side management is to be preferred. However, sometimes the existing regulations prevent the use of such surplus energy, even though it can be offered at a very low price. The problem for the end user is that he has to pay taxes, grid fees, and potentially many other fees for this originally cheap energy. Heat energy has only a certain value and if taxes and fees for electricity exceed this value, nobody will take the surplus energy. This is surely contradictory to an efficient energy supply system.

FIGURE 2.2 Various technology options competing with storage systems in the market for flexibility.

Among others, flexibility options are:

1. Positive control power

a. Power-controlled combined heat and power units

b. Demand-side management in households and industry (switching off of loads)

c. Flexible conventional power plants

d. Demand-controlled biomass power generators

e. Storage system for electrical power (discharge)

2. Negative control power

a. Power to heat

b. Demand-side management in households and industry (switching on of loads)

c. Shutdown of power generators

d. Power to gas/power to chemicals

e. Storage system for electrical power (charge)

Combinations of devices offering positive or negative control power can serve the grid with the same services as a storage system.

Besides the classical flexibility options, grid extension and smart grids reduce the demand of storage technologies. The various technology options are summarized in Figure 2.2. Even though grid and storage systems are not alternatives but complement each other. Grids allow shifting energy with respect to the location; storage systems shift energy availability in time. Time and area are orthogonal dimensions and this shows directly that both are necessary. Nevertheless intelligent combination of both allows minimizing the demand of storage systems and grids.

2.3. Different Types of Classifications

There are several different ways for classifying storage technologies. The classifications are based on different viewpoints.

1. Classification according to the needs of the grid (Section 2.3.1)

2. Classification according to the physical way of storing energy for reconversion into electrical energy (Section 2.3.1.1)

3. Classification according to the supply time of the storage system (Section 2.3.2)

4. Classification as single-and multipurpose storage systems (Section 2.3.3)

5....