Pandey / Negi / Binod Pretreatment of Biomass

Processes and Technologies
1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-0-12-800396-1
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 272 Seiten

Pretreatment of Biomass provides general information, basic data, and knowledge on one of the most promising renewable energy sources-biomass for their pretreatment-which is one of the most essential and critical aspects of biomass-based processes development. The quest to make the environment greener, less polluted, and less hazardous has led to the concept of biorefineries for developing bio-based processes and products using biomass as a feedstock. Each kind of biomass requires some kind of pretreatment to make it suitable for bioprocess. This book provides state-of-art information on the methods currently available for this. This book provides data-based scientific information on the most advanced and innovative pretreatment of lignocellulosic and algal biomass for further processing. Pretreatment of biomass is considered one of the most expensive steps in the overall processing in a biomass-to-biofuel program. With the strong advancement in developing lignocellulose biomass- and algal biomass-based biorefineries, global focus has been on developing pretreatment methods and technologies that are technically and economically feasible. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in methods used for the pretreatment of biomass. An entire section is devoted to the methods and technologies of algal biomass due to the increasing global attention of its use. - Provides information on the most advanced and innovative pretreatament processes and technologies for biomass - Covers information on lignocellulosic and algal biomass to work on the principles of biorefinery - Useful for researchers intending to study scale-up - Provides information on integration of processes and technologies for the pretreatment of biomass

Autoren/Hrsg.

Pandey, Ashok

Negi, Sangeeta

Binod, Parameswaran

Larroche, Christian

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Pretreatment of Biomass;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Contents;6
5;List of Contributors;8
6;SECTION A LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS;10
6.1;Chapter 1 - Introduction;12
6.1.1;1.1 OVERVIEW;12
6.1.2;1.2 THE ROLE OF PRETREATMENT;13
6.1.3;1.3 METHODS OF PRETREATMENT;14
6.1.4;1.4 SUMMARY;15
6.1.5;Acknowledgment;15
6.1.6;References;15
6.2;Chapter 2 - Analysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass Using Infrared Methodology;16
6.2.1;2.1 INTRODUCTION;16
6.2.2;2.2 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF IRS AND ITS APPLICATION;18
6.2.3;2.3 COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS;19
6.2.4;2.4 BIOMASS ANALYSIS VIA FOURIER TRANSFORM NIRS;20
6.2.5;2.5 BIOMASS ANALYSIS VIA FOURIER TRANSFORM MID-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY;27
6.2.6;2.6 CONCLUSION;29
6.2.7;References;29
6.3;Chapter 3 - Acidic Pretreatment;36
6.3.1;3.1 INTRODUCTION;36
6.3.2;3.2 ACID-CATALYZED REACTION OF LIGNOCELLULOSE;43
6.3.3;3.3 INHIBITORS AND DETOXIFICATION;45
6.3.4;3.4 PROCESS CONFIGURATIONS FOR ACIDIC PRETREATMENT;49
6.3.5;References;52
6.4;Chapter 4 - Alkaline Treatment;60
6.4.1;4.1 INTRODUCTION;60
6.4.2;4.2 TYPES OF ALKALI;62
6.4.3;4.3 CONDITIONS OF ALKALI PRETREATMENT;65
6.4.4;4.4 MECHANISM OF ALKALI PRETREATMENT;66
6.4.5;4.5 PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF ALKALI PRETREATED BIOMASS;66
6.4.6;4.6 PROSPECTS AND CONSEQUENCES;67
6.4.7;4.7 COMMERCIALIZATION ASPECTS;68
6.4.8;4.8 CONCLUSION;68
6.4.9;Acknowledgement;68
6.4.10;References;68
6.5;Chapter 5 - Hydrothermal Treatment;70
6.5.1;5.1 INTRODUCTION;70
6.5.2;5.2 PRETREATMENT OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS;71
6.5.3;5.3 HYDROTHERMAL TREATMENT OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS;72
6.5.4;5.4 THE PROPERTIES OF HYDROLYSATE AND PRETREATED BIOMASS OBTAINED FROM HYDROTHERMAL TREATMENT;72
6.5.5;5.5 UTILIZATION OF HYDROLYSATE AND PRETREATED BIOMASS OBTAINED FROM HYDROTHERMAL TREATMENT;77
6.5.6;References;81
6.6;Chapter 6 - Steam Explosion;84
6.6.1;6.1 INTRODUCTION;84
6.6.2;6.2 MECHANISM;85
6.6.3;6.3 KEY PARAMETERS;86
6.6.4;6.4 OPERATION MODE;88
6.6.5;6.5 CHEMICAL ADDITION;91
6.6.6;6.6 PHYSICOCHEMICAL VARIATION OF BIOMASS;92
6.6.7;6.7 PERSPECTIVE;105
6.6.8;Acknowledgments;105
6.6.9;References;105
6.7;Chapter 7 - Ozonolysis;114
6.7.1;7.1 INTRODUCTION;114
6.7.2;7.2 APPLICATIONS OF OZONOLYSIS;115
6.7.3;7.3 OZONOLYSIS CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND STRUCTURAL CHANGES;118
6.7.4;7.4 EFFECT OF PROCESS PARAMETERS;128
6.7.5;7.5 CHALLENGES, POSSIBILITIES AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES;138
6.7.6;References;141
6.8;Chapter 8 - Ionic Liquid Pretreatment;146
6.8.1;8.1 INTRODUCTION;146
6.8.2;8.2 IONIC LIQUIDS;146
6.8.3;8.3 POTENCY AS SOLVENT FOR LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS;151
6.8.4;8.4 RECENT RESEARCH AND PRACTICES IN IL PRETREATMENT;157
6.8.5;8.5 IL PRETREATMENT IN COMBINATION WITH OTHER CONVENTIONAL METHODS;158
6.8.6;8.6 SYNTHESIS;159
6.8.7;8.7 TECHNOECONOMIC FACTORS AFFECTING COMMERCIALIZATION OF IL PRETREATMENT;160
6.8.8;8.8 CONCLUSIONS;161
6.8.9;References;161
6.9;Chapter 9 - Microwave Pretreatment;166
6.9.1;9.1 INTRODUCTION;166
6.9.2;9.2 MW APPLICATION;167
6.9.3;9.3 MW PRETREATMENT REACTORS;174
6.9.4;9.4 SUMMARY AND PROSPECTS;176
6.9.5;Acknowledgments;176
6.9.6;References;176
6.10;Chapter 10 - Torrefaction;182
6.10.1;10.1 INTRODUCTION;182
6.10.2;10.2 TORREFACTION CLASSIFICATION;183
6.10.3;10.3 NONOXIDATIVE TORREFACTION;183
6.10.4;10.4 PROPERTY VARIATION OF BIOMASS;187
6.10.5;10.5 OXIDATIVE TORREFACTION;195
6.10.6;10.6 WET TORREFACTION AND STEAM EXPLOSION;196
6.10.7;10.7 APPLICATIONS;197
6.10.8;References;198
7;SECTION B ALGAL BIOMASS;202
7.1;Chapter 11 - Algal Biomass: Physical Pretreatments;204
7.1.1;11.1 MICROALGAL BIOMASS;204
7.1.2;11.2 APPLICATIONS;208
7.1.3;11.3 POTENTIAL BIOFUEL PRODUCTS;208
7.1.4;11.4 PRETREATMENTS OF MICROALGAE;215
7.1.5;11.5 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT;228
7.1.6;11.6 CONCLUSION AND FINAL REMARKS;231
7.1.7;Acknowledgments;232
7.1.8;References;232
7.2;Chapter 12 - Chemical Pretreatment of Algal Biomass;236
7.2.1;12.1 INTRODUCTION;236
7.2.2;12.2 CHOICE OF PRETREATMENT OF ALGAL BIOMASS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF BIOFUELS;238
7.2.3;12.3 PRETREATMENTS OF ALGAL BIOMASS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF BIOETHANOL, BIOGAS, AND BIOHYDROGEN;238
7.2.4;12.4 PRETREATMENTS FOR LIPID EXTRACTION AND BIODIESEL PRODUCTION;247
7.2.5;12.5 RECENT APPROACHES OF BIOFUEL PRODUCTION FROM ALGAL BIOMASS;252
7.2.6;12.6 FUTURE PROSPECTS OF ALGAL PRETREATMENT;261
7.2.7;Acknowledgments;262
7.2.8;References;262
8;Index;268

Leseproben

Chapter 2

Analysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass Using Infrared Methodology

Feng Xu,  and Donghai Wang     Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA

Abstract

Numerous energy crop species and various processing methods provide thousands of biomass samples that need quick, low-cost analysis. Infrared methodology can provide high-throughput analysis of cellulosic biomass. The conventional method for biomass analysis is time-consuming, labor-intensive and unable to provide structural information. Use of infrared spectroscopy allows qualitative and quantitative analysis of biomass samples without destruction of samples, which is beneficial for in situ or in-field measurement. Chemometric analysis is able to make calibration models robust and reliable. The progress of infrared techniques and their applications in biomass study is introduced. A comparison of infrared methods and the conventional method is also summarized. We also review recent infrared applications in biomass analysis and discuss the prospects for applications of infrared techniques.

Keywords

Biomass; Cellulose; Chemometric analysis; Infrared spectroscopy; Lignin

2.1. Introduction

Lignocellulosic biomass for biofuel production has attracted much attention because of its abundance and renewability [1]. The three major components of lignocellulosic biomass, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, could be candidates for further biological/chemical utilization [2]. Second-generation ethanol, or bioethanol, for example, is being developed from polysaccharides with microbial fermentation [3,4]. Lignin, a phenolic polymer, is also an important material in industrial applications such as development of adhesive resin [5,6] and lignin gels [7,8]. Lignin and cellulose are being utilized in the synthesis of biodegradable polymers [9]. Biomass composition varies by variety and production location/conditions [10], which, in turn, significantly affects processing strategies; for example, alkali pretreatment is more effective in biomass with low lignin content [11]. Biomass composition changes significantly during processing [12], so a fast and accurate determination of biomass composition is critical to accelerating biomass utilization.

Current biomass composition analysis methods are unable to meet the requirements of high-throughput biomass processing. Classic wet chemical methods of biomass determination, which employ two-step sulfuric acid hydrolysis, have been used for over a century, and improvements have adapted them to different objects and conditions [13,14]. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory distributed a series of procedures for biomass determination that have become the de facto process for biomass analysis [15]. These wet chemical methods provide reliable information about biomass composition and have been proven to work well with both wood and herbaceous feedstock, but they are labor-intensive, time-consuming and expensive, which makes them inappropriate for industrial applications or large numbers of samples; for example, a complete analysis using wet chemical methods costs $800–$2000 per sample [16]. Recent developments in the wet chemical method include a small-scale, high-throughput method that is able to process a large number of samples in less time [17], but the instruments/devices (e.g. powder/liquid-dispensing systems) are costly, and these methods require further refinement because some components of biomass (e.g. acid-soluble lignin and ash) are not determined. Other disadvantages of wet chemical methods are that they require preconditioning to remove extractives, and they generate reliable results only from samples within a certain range of particle size [18]. In addition, chemical methods are unable to differentiate among types of hemicellulose, such as xyloglucan and arabinoxylan [19]. Thus, a reliable low-cost, time-saving method is urgently needed for biomass analysis.

Infrared spectroscopy (IRS) has been widely used for qualitative and quantitative analysis in various areas, such as the food and pharmaceutical industries [20–23]; for example, the composition of protein and oil in meat products, cereal crops and food products was predicted successfully using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) [24–26], as were Brix value and starch content in fruits [27]. The cost of analysis of grain materials using NIRS ($13 per sample) is lower than that using feed analysis (over $17 per sample) [28]. IRS also has been proven able to produce qualitative and quantitative results for biomass application [16,29]; for example, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) has been used successfully for compositional analysis of lignocellulosic biomass [30]. The main advantages of IRS technology are that sample preparation is simple, analysis is fast and precise, and many constituents can be analyzed at the same time. Thus, the cost of biomass sample analysis could be reduced to about $10 for each sample [16]. One exclusive characteristic of the IRS method is that it is nondestructive, so the sample could be used for other analysis after IRS measurement. IRS analysis also uses no hazardous chemicals. A comparison of IRS and wet chemical methods in biomass analysis is shown in Figure 2.1. In addition to determining the major polysaccharides in biomass, IRS is capable of providing other structural information. Although numerous chemicals or reagents, such as enzymes and alkali, could be used to extract the polymeric components in plant cell walls, the complicated cross-linkages between polymer chains may not be well elucidated by chemical extraction. The IRS techniques could be used for composition and structural analysis, such as detection of functional groups [31]. Only a few studies have been reported for the determination of biomass composition, because earlier IRS analysis suffered from blanket absorption of water [32], but the development of Fourier transform data processing and computer modeling could solve this problem.

FIGURE 2.1 Comparison of the compositional analysis methods for biomass (IR: infrared; MV-PLS: multivariate partial least squares regression; HPLC: high-performance liquid chromatography; UV–Vis: ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy).

This chapter, in addition to summarizing the basic principle of IRS and the characterization of biomass, discusses the applications of IRS in biomass utilization.

2.2. Physical Principles of IRS and Its Application

IRS is usually a result of the fundamental molecular vibration mechanism, which refers to energy–matter interaction [33]. Upon interaction of infrared radiation with an oscillating dipole moment associated with a vibrating bond, absorption of the radiation corresponds to a change in dipole moment. Generally, different functional groups correspond to different components of the infrared spectrum; therefore, the spectral features could be used for structural analysis. The infrared region consists of three regions according to wavelength range: near-infrared (780–2500nm or 12,800–4000 cm-1), mid-infrared (2500–25,000nm or 4000–400 cm-1), and far-infrared (25,000–1,000,000nm or 400–10 cm-1) [34]. Mid-infrared is used to investigate the fundamental vibrations and related structures, whereas near-infrared (NIR) analysis provides information on molecular overtones and combinations of vibrations. One interesting feature in NIRS is the overtone, which consists of numerous combinations of vibrational bands. Even for some simple molecules with few fundamental vibration modes, many overtone bands could be shown in NIR spectra, depending on their various combinations; chloroform, for example, has six fundamental modes but about 34 overtone modes [34]. Although the NIR spectra appear complicated, they are not a random mix, which makes it possible to analyze structural information with chemometric techniques.

The components of the IRS system usually include lenses, a radiation source, filters, a detector and a data processing unit (Figure 2.2(A)) [35]. The filter system is used to define wavelength range, which makes it a crucial component in the infrared system. Several types of filters are available: fixed filters, variable filters and tilting filters. IRS typically measures light absorption, and light reflectance mode is used for solid biomass [16]. Attenuated total reflectance (ATR) is widely used with FTIR in biomass measurement, which simplifies sample preparation. In the NIR system, one diffuse reflection approach is an integrating sphere (Figure 2.2(B)) in which light is directed onto a sample. The integrating sphere is suitable for measuring inhomogeneous samples such as biomass material (e.g. stover, wood chips) because the sampling area is large. Numerous NIR systems have been developed for applications from indoor laboratory to field uses; for example, a field spectrometer has been developed that can be carried in a backpack [36], and remote techniques can be coupled with outdoor spectrometers for field monitoring [37].

A computerized spectrophotometry system has been widely used to perform advanced investigation. With a combination of microscopy and spectroscopy, FTIR could be used to quantify the chemical composition...