E-Book, Englisch, 672 Seiten
ISBN: 978-0-08-046697-2
Verlag: Elsevier Trade Monographs
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)
* Provides practicing engineers critical information on all aspects of gas gathering, processing and transmission
* First book that treats multiphase flow transmission in great detail
* Examines natural gas energy costs and pricing with the aim of delivering on the goals of efficiency, quality and profit
Saeid Mokhatab is one of the most recognizable names in the natural gas community through his contributions to advancing the technologies in the natural gas processing industry. He has worked in a variety of senior technical and managerial positions with major petroleum companies and has been actively involved in several large-scale gas-field development projects, concentrating on design, precommissioning and startup of processing plants. He has presented numerous invited lectures on gas processing technologies, and has authored or co-authored over 200 technical publications including two well-known Elsevier's handbooks, which are considered by many as major references to be taken into account for any gas processing/LNG project in development. He founded the world's first peer-reviewed journal devoted to the natural gas science and engineering (published by Elsevier, USA); has held editorial positions in many scientific journals/book publishing companies for the hydrocarbon processing industry; and served as a member of technical committees for a number of professional societies and famous gas-processing conferences worldwide. As a result of his outstanding work in the natural gas industry, he has received a number of international awards/medals including the Einstein Gold Medal of Honor and Kapitsa Gold Medal of Honor; and his biography has been listed in highly prestigious directories.
Autoren/Hrsg.
Weitere Infos & Material
1;Front Cover;1
2;HANDBOOK OF NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION AND PROCESSING;5
3;Copyright Page;6
4;CONTRIBUTORS;9
5;CONTENTS;11
6;FOREWORD;21
7;PREFACE;23
8;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;25
9;ENDORSEMENTS;29
10;AUTHORS BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES;31
11;Chapter 1 - NATURAL GAS FUNDAMENTAL;35
11.1;1.1 INTRODUCTION;35
11.2;1.2 NATURAL GAS HISTORY;36
11.3;1.3 NATURAL GAS ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION;36
11.4;1.4 GAS SOURCES;38
11.5;1.5 NATURAL GAS PHASE BEHAVIOR;42
11.6;1.6 NATURAL GAS PROPERTIES;43
11.7;1.7 QUALITY;52
11.8;1.8 TRANSPORTATION;53
11.9;REFERENCES;61
12;Chapter 2 - NATURAL GAS ENERGY PRICING;63
12.1;2.1 INTRODUCTION;63
12.2;2.2 ENERGY PRICING, SUPPLY, AND DEMAND;64
12.3;2.3 SUSTAINABILITY AND THE INCREASING FASCINATION WITH NATURAL GAS;66
12.4;2.4 IS NATURAL GAS ALWAYS "NONRENEWABLE?";68
12.5;2.5 U.S. NATURAL GAS: PRICING, MARKETS, RISK MANAGEMENT, AND SUPPLY;71
12.6;2.6 NATURAL GAS IN EURASIA: THE SPECIAL POSITION OF POST- SOVIET RUSSIA;97
12.7;2.7 LOOKING TO NATURE FOR A NEW MODEL;103
12.8;REFERENCES;112
13;Chapter 3 - RAW GAS TRANSMISSION;115
13.1;3.1 INTRODUCTION;115
13.2;3.2 MULTIPHASE FLOW TERMINOLOGY;116
13.3;3.3 MULTIPHASE FLOW REGIMES;120
13.4;3.4 CALCULATING MULTIPHASE FLOW PRESSURE GRADIENTS;129
13.5;3.5 MULTIPHASE FLOW IN GAS/CONDENSATE PIPELINES;141
13.6;3.6 TEMPERATURE PROFILE OF MULTIPHASE PIPELINES;143
13.7;3.7 VELOCITY CRITERIA FOR SIZING MULTIPHASE PIPELINES;146
13.8;3.8 MULTIPHASE FLOW ASSURANCE;151
13.9;3.9 MULTIPHASE PIPELINE OPERATIONS;197
13.10;REFERENCES;207
14;Chapter 4 - BASIC CONCEPTS OF NATURAL GAS PROCESSING;223
14.1;4.1 INTRODUCTION;223
14.2;4.2 PROCESS MODULES;224
14.3;4.3 SCOPE OF NATURAL GAS PROCESSING;227
14.4;REFERENCES;229
15;Chapter 5 - PHASE SEPARATION;231
15.1;5.1 INTRODUCTION;231
15.2;5.2 GRAVITY SEPARATORS;232
15.3;5.3 MULTISTAGE SEPARATION;253
15.4;5.4 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS;254
15.5;5.5 TWISTER SUPERSONIC SEPARATOR;255
15.6;5.6 SLUG CATCHERS;255
15.7;5.7 HIGH-EFFICIENCY LIQUID-GAS COALESCERS;258
15.8;5.8 HIGH-EFFICIENCY LIQUID-LIQUID COALESCERS;270
15.9;REFERENCES;278
16;Chapter 6 - CONDENSATE STABILIZATION;281
16.1;6.1 INTRODUCTION;281
16.2;6.2 STABILIZATION PROCESSES;282
16.3;6.3 CONDENSATE STORAGE;290
16.4;REFERENCES;293
17;Chapter 7 - ACID GAS TREATING;295
17.1;7.1 INTRODUCTION;295
17.2;7.2 ACID GAS REMOVAL PROCESSES;296
17.3;7.3 SULFUR RECOVERY PROCESSES;322
17.4;REFERENCES;325
18;Chapter 8 - NATURAL GAS COMPRESSION;329
18.1;8.1 INTRODUCTION;329
18.2;8.2 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS;330
18.3;8.3 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS;332
18.4;8.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPRESSORS;333
18.5;8.5 COMPRESSOR SELECTION;334
18.6;8.6 THERMODYNAMICS OF GAS COMPRESSION;335
18.7;8.7 REAL GAS BEHAVIOR AND EQUATIONS OF STATE;341
18.8;8.8 COMPRESSION RATIO;343
18.9;8.9 COMPRESSION DESIGN;345
18.10;8.10 COMPRESSOR CONTROL;350
18.11;8.11 COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE MAPS;353
18.12;REFERENCES;355
19;Chapter 9 - NATURAL GAS DEHYDRATION;357
19.1;9.1 INTRODUCTION;357
19.2;9.2 WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION;358
19.3;9.3 GLYCOL DEHYDRATION;359
19.4;9.4 SOLID DESICCANT DEHYDRATION;380
19.5;REFERENCES;395
20;Chapter 10 - NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS RECOVERY;399
20.1;10.1 INTRODUCTION;399
20.2;10.2 NGL RECOVERY PROCESSES;400
20.3;10.3 NGL FRACTIONATION;415
20.4;10.4 GASOLINE AND LPG TREATING;430
20.5;REFERENCES;432
21;Chapter 11 - SALES GAS TRANSMISSION;435
21.1;11.1 INTRODUCTION;435
21.2;11.2 GAS FLOW FUNDAMENTALS;435
21.3;11.3 PREDICTING GAS TEMPERATURE PROFILE;443
21.4;11.4 TRANSIENT FLOW IN GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINES;448
21.5;11.5 COMPRESSOR STATIONS AND ASSOCIATED PIPELINE INSTALLATIONS;449
21.6;11.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF SALES GAS PIPELINES;452
21.7;11.7 PIPELINE OPERATIONS;459
21.8;REFERENCES;462
22;Chapter 12 - GAS PROCESSING PLANT CONTROLS AND AUTOMATION;465
22.1;12.1 INTRODUCTION;465
22.2;12.2 EARLY METHODS OF GAS PLANT AUTOMATION;466
22.3;12.3 MICROPROCESSOR-BASED AUTOMATION;467
22.4;12.4 CONTROL OF EQUIPMENT AND PROCESS SYSTEMS;470
22.5;12.5 AUTOMATION APPLICATIONS;479
22.6;12.6 CONDENSATE STABILIZER CASE STUDY;489
22.7;REFERENCES;492
22.8;SUGGESTED READING;493
23;Chapter 13 - DYNAMIC SIMULATION OF GAS PROCESSING PLANTS;495
23.1;13.1 INTRODUCTION;495
23.2;13.2 AREAS OF APPLICATION OF DYNAMIC SIMULATION;496
23.3;13.3 MODELING CONSIDERATIONS;502
23.4;13.4 CONTROL OF EQUIPMENT AND PROCESS SYSTEMS;506
23.5;13.5 CASE STUDY I: ANALYSIS OF A FUEL GAS SYSTEM START- UP;508
23.6;13.6 CASE STUDY II: ONLINE DYNAMIC MODEL OF A TRUNK PIPELINE;512
23.7;REFERENCES;516
23.8;SUGGESTED READING;517
24;Chapter 14 - ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF GAS PROCESSING AND USE;519
24.1;14.1 INTRODUCTION;519
24.2;14.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF NATURAL GAS PROCESSING;520
24.3;14.3 EMISSIONS FROM NATURAL GAS USE;532
24.4;14.4 PROTOCOLS AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMS;537
24.5;14.5 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM;538
24.6;REFERENCES;539
25;Chapter 15 - MAXIMIZING PROFITABILITY OF GAS PLANT ASSETS;541
25.1;15.1 INTRODUCTION;541
25.2;15.2 THE PERFORMANCE STRATEGY: INTEGRATED GAS PLANT;543
25.3;15.3 STRATEGIES FOR ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND INFORMATION;544
25.4;15.4 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MODEL;544
25.5;15.5 THE SUCCESSFUL INFORMATION STRATEGY;554
25.6;15.6 THE IMPACT OF LIVING WITH INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY;555
25.7;15.7 VISION OF THE MODERN PLANT OPERATION;557
25.8;15.8 OPERATIONS STRATEGY;558
25.9;15.9 MODEL BASED ASSET MANAGEMENT;559
25.10;15.10 OPTIMIZATION;560
25.11;15.11 INDUSTRIAL RELEVANCE;564
25.12;15.12 THE TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION CHALLENGE;565
25.13;15.13 SCIENTIFIC APPROACH;566
25.14;15.14 OTHER MISCELLANEOUS INITIATIVES;567
25.15;15.15 CONCLUSION;568
25.16;REFERENCES;570
25.17;SUGGESTED READING;571
26;Chapter 16 - GAS PLANT PROJECT MANAGEMENT;573
26.1;16.1 INTRODUCTION;573
26.2;16.2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT OVERVIEW;574
26.3;16.3 INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVE;574
26.4;16.4 THE PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESS;575
26.5;16.5 PROJECT CONTROLS;585
26.6;16.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE;596
26.7;16.7 COMMISSIONING AND START-UP;598
26.8;16.8 OPERATE AND EVALUATE;599
26.9;16.9 PROJECT CLOSEOUT;599
26.10;16.10 CONCLUSION;600
26.11;REFERENCES;601
26.12;SUGGESTED READING;601
27;Appendix 1 - THREE-PHASE FLASH CALCULATION FOR HYDROCARBON SYSTEMS CONTAINING WATER;603
28;Appendix 2 - CONVERSION FACTORS;611
29;Appendix 3 - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS;613
30;GLOSSARY AND ACRONYMS;627
31;Index;639
CHAPTER 2 NATURAL GAS ENERGY PRICING 2.1 INTRODUCTION
The pricing of natural gas as an energy commodity presents a number of features of historic significance. These historical elements relating to the politics and economics of the development of oil and gas resources are highly significant in their own right. Indeed, natural gas is playing an increasingly important role as an alternative to crude oil and the gasoline and numerous other by-products refined from petroleum. At the same time, a number of nonhistorical components also enter into the pricing of natural gas as an energy commodity. Some of these elements, especially those implicated in environmental pollution, have an intangible connection to gas pricing, although one would be hard-pressed to ferret out its exact contribution to consumers’ expense. Appropriate intervention by the working engineer can do wonders for preserving the environment and all of us living in it from serious harm in the short term and the long term. Nothing including the most precious energy commodity, can have a higher value than human life, which forms the starting point of this chapter. Although natural approaches in general, and their usefulness for addressing environmental problems created by current energy development technologies and approaches in particular, are beyond the scope both of this chapter and of conventional concerns about gas pricing, throughout the rest of this chapter some of the obstacles that have been strewn along and throughout the various paths toward the goal of knowledge-based, all-natural, researched solutions to what some have called “our technological disaster” — solutions that would prove innovative, economically attractive, environmentally appealing, and socially responsible — will be pointed out. The principal goal of this chapter is to examine natural gas energy pricing with the aim of answering the following question: considered from an engineering standpoint, how consistent with their actual potential are the patterns, changes, and trends in the supply of and demand for so-called “nonrenewable” energy commodities? 2.2 ENERGY PRICING, SUPPLY, AND DEMAND
In recent years there has been an increasing recognition that the actual supply and demand for energy commodities diverge significantly from the conventional economic notions and expectations concerning the supply and demand of commodities (Islam and Zatzman, 2004, 2005). Much effort has been expended to define and account for the divergence as an exception relating mainly to the strategic character of energy as a commodity in a globalized marketplace. The problem with an analysis that goes only this far, however, is its failure to explain why current economic theory as a body of theory fails to account for, or predict, the energy exception. Without such comprehension at the level of theory, it becomes difficult, if not impossible, to discover or elucidate any paths that could or might overcome the numerous contradictions and downsides inherent in the present marketing and pricing arrangements in place for energy commodities. What do such considerations have to do with the price of gas? Consider what happens with the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) stream recovered from the natural gas-processing scenario. The recovered hydrogen sulfide gas stream itself is considered an object of “waste management.” It “may be either vented, flared in waste gas flares or modern smokeless flares, incinerated, or utilized for the production of elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid” (EPA, 1995). Any of the first three options require regulation as potentially hazardous emissions. Again what is being proposed is to burden society with a further problem arising from the original technological decision to “sweeten” the gas as “efficiently” as possible rather than innovate delivery systems that would avert creation in the first place of additional waste management expense. What these waste management expenses actually represent for those selling natural gas is a further cost factored into the final delivered price of the product — to pay for meeting the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standard. (The fourth option, which would not only potentially generate new revenue but do so in a manner that undergirds ongoing production of natural gas with an additional productive purpose as a feedstock generator, is neither discussed nor framed in EPA discussions as part of the planning of natural gas processing.) If the recovered H2S gas stream is not to be utilized as a feedstock for commercial applications, the gas is usually passed to a tail gas incinerator in which the H2S is oxidized to SO2 and is then passed to the atmosphere out a stack (Mullins, 1975). Future gas engineering projects might want to take note of the fact that smokestack wastes are one of the most endemically costly and health-threatening environmental hazards of modern living and accordingly undertake a waste conversion plan capable of returning a revenue stream that allows the production and transmission costs as well as the delivered price of natural gas either to be reduced or its rate of increase contained. These wastes are especially strongly implicated in the return and increasing occurrence of asthma not only in children, but in many sections of the adult population. In the United States and Canada, the smokestack waste from the Ohio Valley region actually created the well-known problem of “acid rain.” Even as many ingenious methods have been developed to neutralize the quite varied effects of such precipitation on everything from groundwater quality to the health of the southern boreal forest cover of eastern North America in general and its maple and other hardwood tree growth in particular, the geographic region involved takes in the territories of eastern Indiana state, southern Michigan state, and the state of Ohio in the catchment zone of the Ohio Valley; southwestern Ontario and southern and eastern Quebec, in central Canada; northern New York, Vermont, and New Hampshire in the northeastern United States, the catchment area of the St. John River system in Maine, Quebec, and New Brunswick; and the Cobequid Hills of northern Nova Scotia. A careful and reasoned calculation of all the costs and benefits derivable from taking the particulates vented as smokestack waste in this major acid rain-vulnerable zone and recapturing them for production of nanomaterials would likely prove most instructive as well as enlightening on the matter of how inflexible present production, delivery, and pricing arrangements for natural gas actually are. Science and engineering issues of technological development have become consciously disconnected from rational considerations of the overall aims and needs of human social life, a disconnection that leads to, and feeds, an incoherence that becomes increasingly intolerable in our current “information age,” when information as the building block of useful knowledge and understanding has become available in quantities and detail as never before, but the research and thinking needed to make such a flood of information coherent, comprehensible, and useful remain extremely rare quantities indeed. The working engineer must never forget that there are alternatives, but, remarkably, while the EPA web site generated 5443 “hits” in response to a query for article titles from its libraries that deal with “glycol and natural gas processing,” a request for article titles discussing “glycol substitutes” returned a grand total of 2 “hits.” In the course of addressing gas-pricing issues in this chapter, some key elements of the massive disinformation attending the entire notion of “renewable” versus “nonrenewable” energy sources will be mentioned. The price mechanism and price formation for these resources as energy commodities do not depend upon mainly or solely upon any of their inherent material characteristics as raw materials, nor on their particular properties as energy sources. Nor do these price mechanisms and price formation depend purely or even mainly upon the conditions limiting or enabling how humanity accesses them. Not the prices themselves, but certainly the processes of energy commodity price formation and associated price movements remain circumscribed to an uncannily large degree by the evolution of energy policy in the context of world-altering developments at the level of international politics and economics as they emerged at the end of World War I. The decisive role of the overall economic system in these price mechanisms and price formation has been influenced greatly by this context, even into our own time. The leading features of this overall economic system have exercised distorting influences over the engineering approaches taken to the development of these resources. Practical as the concerns must be of the working engineer, an essential barrier to humanity achieving a truly functional as well as just solution to our current energy supply-demand conundrum is to be found in this historic legacy. 2.3 SUSTAINABILITY AND THE INCREASING FASCINATION WITH NATURAL GAS
The entire question of the sustainability of economies dependent on fossil fuels as their principal energy source — be it for transportation, for domestic uses such as heating and cooking, or for the provision of electrical power for industrial or domestic markets — is affected and influenced by changes over time in the pricing structure of the production and delivery of these resources. However,...
