Principles and Practices
E-Book, Englisch, 629 Seiten
ISBN: 978-0-12-801664-0
Verlag: Elsevier Reference Monographs
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)
Covers all technical and operational aspects of natural gas transmission and processing in detail.Provides pivotal updates on the latest technologies, applications and solutions.Offers practical advice on design and operation based on engineering principles and operating experiences.
Saeid Mokhatab is one of the most recognizable names in the natural gas community through his contributions to advancing the technologies in the natural gas processing industry. He has worked in a variety of senior technical and managerial positions with major petroleum companies and has been actively involved in several large-scale gas-field development projects, concentrating on design, precommissioning and startup of processing plants. He has presented numerous invited lectures on gas processing technologies, and has authored or co-authored over 200 technical publications including two well-known Elsevier's handbooks, which are considered by many as major references to be taken into account for any gas processing/LNG project in development. He founded the world's first peer-reviewed journal devoted to the natural gas science and engineering (published by Elsevier, USA); has held editorial positions in many scientific journals/book publishing companies for the hydrocarbon processing industry; and served as a member of technical committees for a number of professional societies and famous gas-processing conferences worldwide. As a result of his outstanding work in the natural gas industry, he has received a number of international awards/medals including the Einstein Gold Medal of Honor and Kapitsa Gold Medal of Honor; and his biography has been listed in highly prestigious directories.
Autoren/Hrsg.
Weitere Infos & Material
1;Front Cover;1
2;Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and
Processing;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Disclaimer;6
5;Dedication;8
6;Contents;12
7;About the Authors;24
8;Foreword;26
9;Preface to the Third Edition;28
10;Endorsements for the Third Edition;30
11;Chapter 1 - Natural Gas Fundamentals;32
11.1;1.1 Introduction;32
11.2;1.2 Natural gas history;32
11.3;1.3 Natural gas origin and sources;33
11.4;1.4 Natural gas composition and classification;34
11.5;1.5 Natural gas phase behavior;35
11.6;1.6 Natural gas properties;37
11.7;1.7 Natural gas reserves;47
11.8;1.8 Natural gas exploration and production;47
11.9;1.9 Natural gas transportation;55
11.10;1.10 Natural gas processing;64
11.11;1.11 Sales gas transmission;64
11.12;1.12 Underground gas storage;64
11.13;References;66
12;Chapter 2 - Raw Gas Transmission;68
12.1;2.1 Introduction;68
12.2;2.2 Multiphase flow terminology;68
12.3;2.3 Multiphase flow regimes;73
12.4;2.4 Determining multiphase flow design parameters;80
12.5;2.5 Predicting temperature profile of multiphase pipeline;91
12.6;2.6 Velocity criteria for sizing multiphase pipelines;95
12.7;2.7 Multiphase pipeline operations;96
12.8;2.8 Multiphase flow assurance;99
12.9;References;145
13;Chapter 3 - Basic Concepts of Natural Gas Processing;154
13.1;3.1 Introduction;154
13.2;3.2 Natural gas processing objectives;154
13.3;3.3 Gas processing plant configurations;155
13.4;3.4 Finding the best gas processing route;162
13.5;3.5 Support systems;163
13.6;3.6 Contractual agreements;164
13.7;References;166
14;Chapter 4 - Phase Separation;168
14.1;4.1 Introduction;168
14.2;4.2 Gravity separators;168
14.3;4.3 Multistage separation;176
14.4;4.4 Centrifugal separators;176
14.5;4.5 Twister supersonic separator;177
14.6;4.6 Slug catchers;179
14.7;4.7 High-efficiency liquid/gas coalescers;181
14.8;4.8 High-efficiency liquid–liquid coalescers;188
14.9;4.9 Practical design of separation systems;193
14.10;References;196
15;Chapter 5 - Condensate Production;200
15.1;5.1 Introduction;200
15.2;5.2 Condensate stabilization;201
15.3;5.3 Condensate hydrotreating;205
15.4;5.4 Effluent treatment;207
15.5;5.5 Condensate storage;209
16;Chapter 6 - Natural Gas Treating;212
16.1;6.1 Introduction;212
16.2;6.2 Gas treating specifications;212
16.3;6.3 Gas treating processes;213
16.4;6.4 Chemical absorption processes;214
16.5;6.5 Physical solvent processes;227
16.6;6.6 Mixed physical and chemical absorption processes;239
16.7;6.7 Solid bed absorption processes;241
16.8;6.8 Solid bed adsorption process;244
16.9;6.9 Membrane;245
16.10;6.10 Cryogenic fractionation;249
16.11;6.11 Microbiological treatment processes;249
16.12;6.12 Selecting the gas treating process;250
16.13;References;251
17;Chapter 7 - Natural Gas Dehydration;254
17.1;7.1 Introduction;254
17.2;7.2 Water content determination;255
17.3;7.3 Glycol dehydration;257
17.4;7.4 Solid-bed dehydration;268
17.5;7.5 Other gas dehydration processes;289
17.6;7.6 Gas dehydration process selection;290
17.7;7.7 Mercury removal;291
17.8;References;293
18;Chapter 8 - Natural Gas Liquids Recovery;296
18.1;8.1 Introduction;296
18.2;8.2 Refrigeration processes;297
18.3;8.3 Liquid recovery processes;302
18.4;8.4 Selection of NGL recovery process;320
18.5;8.5 NGL recovery technology development;321
18.6;8.6 NGL recovery unit design considerations;321
18.7;8.7 NGL recovery unit operating problems;321
18.8;8.8 NGL fractionation;322
18.9;8.9 Liquid product processing;324
18.10;References;329
19;Chapter 9 - Sulfur Recovery and Handling;332
19.1;9.1 Introduction;332
19.2;9.2 Sulfur properties;332
19.3;9.3 Sulfur recovery;333
19.4;9.4 Tail gas cleanup;345
19.5;9.5 Sulfur degassing;351
19.6;9.6 Sulfur storage and handling;353
19.7;9.7 SRU design considerations;355
19.8;9.8 SRU operation problems;358
19.9;9.9 Selecting the sulfur recovery process;362
19.10;9.10 Sulfur disposal by acid gas injection;363
19.11;References;364
20;Chapter 10 - Nitrogen Rejection;366
20.1;10.1 Introduction;366
20.2;10.2 Nitrogen rejection options;366
20.3;10.3 Nitrogen rejection unit integration;367
20.4;10.4 Cryogenic nitrogen rejection;369
20.5;10.5 Design considerations;376
20.6;10.6 Operating problems;377
21;Chapter 11 - Natural Gas Compression;380
21.1;11.1 Introduction;380
21.2;11.2 Reciprocating compressors;381
21.3;11.3 Centrifugal compressors;382
21.4;11.4 Comparison between compressors;384
21.5;11.5 Compressor selection;385
21.6;11.6 Thermodynamics of gas compression;386
21.7;11.7 Compression ratio;393
21.8;11.8 Compressor design;395
21.9;11.9 Compressor control;398
21.10;11.10 Compressor performance maps;406
21.11;11.11 Example for operating a compressor in a pipeline system;407
21.12;References;411
22;Chapter 12 - Sales Gas Transmission;414
22.1;12.1 Introduction;414
22.2;12.2 Gas flow fundamentals;414
22.3;12.3 Predicting gas temperature profile;421
22.4;12.4 Transient flow in gas transmission pipelines;423
22.5;12.5 Compressor stations;425
22.6;12.6 Reduction and metering stations;433
22.7;12.7 Design considerations of sales gas pipelines;434
22.8;12.8 Pipeline operations;440
22.9;References;441
23;Chapter 13 - Gas Processing Plant Automation;444
23.1;13.1 Introduction;444
23.2;13.2 Early methods of gas plant automation;444
23.3;13.3 Microprocessor-based automation;445
23.4;13.4 Control of equipment and process systems;448
23.5;13.5 Automation applications;455
23.6;13.6 Condensate stabilizer case study;464
23.7;References;467
24;Chapter 14 - Gas Processing Plant Operations;468
24.1;14.1 Introduction;468
24.2;14.2 Commissioning and start-up;468
24.3;14.3 Control room management;473
24.4;14.4 Maintenance;485
24.5;14.5 Troubleshooting;489
24.6;14.6 Turnarounds;495
24.7;References;495
25;Chapter 15 - Dynamic Simulation of Gas Processing Plants;498
25.1;15.1 Introduction;498
25.2;15.2 Areas of application of dynamic simulation;498
25.3;15.3 Modeling considerations;504
25.4;15.4 Control of equipment and process systems;508
25.5;15.5 Case study I: Analysis of a fuel gas system start-up;509
25.6;15.6 Case study II: Online dynamic model of a trunk line;512
25.7;References;516
26;Chapter 16 - Real-Time Optimization of Gas Processing Plants;518
26.1;16.1 Introduction;518
26.2;16.2 Real-time optimization;518
26.3;16.3 RTO project considerations;535
26.4;16.4 Example of RTO;536
26.5;References;547
27;Chapter 17 - Maximizing Profitability of Gas Plant Assets;548
27.1;17.1 Introduction;548
27.2;17.2 The performance strategy—integrated gas plant;549
27.3;17.3 Strategies for organizational behavior and information;550
27.4;17.4 Organizational behavior model;550
27.5;17.5 The successful information strategy;559
27.6;17.6 The impact of living with information technology;560
27.7;17.7 Vision of the modern plant operation;561
27.8;17.8 Operations strategy;562
27.9;17.9 Model-based asset management;563
27.10;17.10 Optimization;564
27.11;17.11 Industrial relevance;567
27.12;17.12 The technology integration challenge;568
27.13;17.13 Scientific approach;568
27.14;17.14 Other miscellaneous initiatives;570
27.15;17.15 Conclusion;570
27.16;References;572
28;Chapter 18 - Gas Plant Project Management;574
28.1;18.1 Introduction;574
28.2;18.2 Project management overview;574
28.3;18.3 Industry perspective;575
28.4;18.4 The project management process;576
28.5;18.5 Project controls;585
28.6;18.6 Quality assurance;595
28.7;18.7 Commissioning and start-up;596
28.8;18.8 Operate and evaluate;597
28.9;18.9 Project closeout;598
28.10;18.10 Conclusion;598
28.11;References;599
29;Appendix 1 - Conversion Factors;602
30;Appendix 2 - Standard Gas Conditions;604
31;Appendix 3 - Physical Properties of Fluids;606
32;Index;612
2.3. Multiphase flow regimes
Multiphase flow is characterized by the existence of interfaces between the phases and discontinuities of associated properties. The flow structures are rather classified in “flow regimes” or “flow patterns,” whose precise characteristics depend on a number of parameters. Flow regimes vary depending on operating conditions, fluid properties, flow rates, and the orientation and geometry of the pipe through which the fluids flow. The transition between different flow regimes may be a gradual process. Due to the highly nonlinear nature of the forces that rule the flow regime transitions, the prediction is near impossible. In the laboratory, the flow regime may be studied by direct visual observation using a length of transparent piping. However, the most utilized approach is to identify the actual flow regime from signal analysis of sensors whose fluctuations are related to the flow regime structure. This approach is generally based on average cross-sectional quantities, such as pressure drop or cross-sectional liquid holdup. 2.3.1. Two-phase flow regimes
The description of two-phase flow can be simplified by classifying types of “flow regimes” or “flow patterns.” The distribution of the fluid phases in space and time differs for the various flow regimes and is usually not under the control of the pipeline designer or operator. Hubbard and Dukler (1966) suggested three basic flow patterns: separated, intermittent, and distributed flow. In separated flow patterns, both phases are continuous and some droplets or bubbles of one phase in the other may or may not exist. In the intermittent flow patterns, at least one phase is discontinuous. In dispersed flow patterns, the liquid phase is continuous, while the gas phase is discontinuous. Due to multitude of flow patterns and the various interpretations accorded to them by different investigators, the general state of knowledge on flow patterns is unsatisfactory and no uniform procedure exists at present for describing and classifying them. In this section, the basic flow patterns in gas-liquid flow in horizontal, vertical, and inclined pipes are introduced. 2.3.1.1. Horizontal flow regimes Two-phase, gas-liquid flow regimes for horizontal flow are shown in Figure 2-2. These horizontal flow regimes are defined as follows. Dispersed bubble flow At high liquid flow rates and for a wide range of gas flow rates small gas bubbles are dispersed throughout a continuous liquid phase. Due to the effect of buoyancy these bubbles tend to accumulate in the upper part of the pipe. Plug (elongated bubble) flow At relatively low gas flow rates, as the liquid flow rate is reduced, the smaller bubbles of dispersed bubble flow coalesce to form larger bullet-shaped bubbles that move along the top of the pipe.
Figure 2-2 Horizontal two-phase, gas-liquid flow regimes. Stratified (smooth and wavy) flow At low liquid and gas flow rates gravitational effects cause total separation of the two phases. This results in the liquid flowing along the bottom of the pipe and the gas flowing along the top, where the gas-liquid surface is smooth. As the gas velocity is increased in stratified smooth flow the interfacial shear forces increase, rippling the liquid surface and producing a wavy interface. Slug flow As the gas and liquid flow rates are increased further, the stratified liquid level grows and becomes progressively more wavy until eventually the whole cross-section of the pipe is blocked by a wave. The resultant “piston” of liquid is then accelerated by the gas flow; surging along the pipe, and scooping up the liquid film in front as it progresses. This “piston” is followed by a region containing an elongated gas bubble moving over a thin liquid film. Hence an intermittent regime develops in which elongated gas bubbles and liquid slugs alternately surge along the pipe. The major difference between elongated bubble flow and slug flow is that in elongated bubble flow there are no entrained gas bubbles in the liquid slugs. Annular flow When gas flow rates increase, annular (also referred to as annular mist) flow occurs. During annular flow, the liquid phase flows largely as an annular film on the wall with gas flowing as a central core. Some of the liquid is entrained as droplets in this gas core. The annular liquid film is thicker at the bottom than at the top of the pipe because of the effect of gravity and, except at very low liquid rates, the liquid film is covered with large waves. 2.3.1.2. Vertical flow regimes Flow regimes frequently encountered in upward vertical two-phase flow are shown in Figure 2-3. These flow regimes tend to be somewhat more simpler than those in horizontal flow. This results from the symmetry in the flow induced by the gravitational force acting parallel to it. A brief description of the manner in which the fluids are distributed in the pipe for upward vertical two-phase flow is as follows. It is worth noting that vertical flows are not so common in raw gas systems (i.e., wells normally have some deviation and many risers are also inclined to some extent).
Figure 2-3 Upward vertical two-phase flow regimes. Bubble flow At very low liquid and gas velocities, the liquid phase is continuous and the gas phase travels as dispersed bubbles. This flow regime is called bubble flow. As the liquid flow rate increases, the bubbles may increase in size via coalescence. Based on the presence or absence of slippage between the two phases, bubble flow is further classified into bubbly and dispersed bubble flows. In bubbly flow, relatively fewer and larger bubbles move faster than the liquid phase because of slippage. In dispersed bubble flow, numerous tiny bubbles are transported by the liquid phase, causing no relative motion between the two phases. Slug flow As the gas velocity increases, the gas bubbles start coalescing, eventually forming large enough bubbles (Taylor bubbles) which occupy almost the entire cross-sectional area. This flow regime is called slug flow. Taylor bubbles move uniformly upward and are separated by slugs of continuous liquid that bridge the pipe and contain small gas bubbles. Typically, the liquid in the film around the Taylor bubbles may move downward at low velocities although the net flow of liquid can be upward. The gas bubble velocity is greater than that of the liquid. Churn (transition) flow If a change from a continuous liquid phase to a continuous gas phase occurs, the continuity of the liquid in the slug between successive Taylor bubbles is repeatedly destroyed by a high local gas concentration in the slug. This oscillatory flow of the liquid is typical of churn (froth) flow. It may not occur in small diameter pipes. The gas bubbles may join and liquid may be entrained in the bubbles. In this flow regime, the falling film of the liquid surrounding the gas plugs cannot be observed. Annular flow As the gas velocity increases even further, the transition occurs and the gas phase becomes a continuous phase in the pipe core. The liquid phase moves upward partly as a thin film (adhering to the pipe wall) and partly in the form of dispersed droplets in the gas core. This flow regime is called an annular flow or an annular-mist flow. Although downward vertical two-phase flow is less common than upward flow, it does occur in steam injection wells and downcomer pipes from offshore production platforms. Hence a general vertical two-phase flow pattern is required that can be applied to all flow situations. Reliable models for downward multiphase flow are currently unavailable and the design codes are deficient in this area. 2.3.1.3. Inclined flow regimes The effect of pipeline inclination on the gas-liquid two-phase flow regimes is of a major interest in hilly terrain pipelines that consist almost entirely of uphill and downhill inclined sections. Pipe inclination angles have a very strong influence on flow pattern transitions. Generally, the flow regime in a near horizontal pipe remains segregated for downward inclinations and changes to intermittent flow regime for upward inclinations. An intermittent flow regime remains intermittent when tilted upward and tends to segregated flow pattern when inclined downward. The inclination should not significantly affect the distributed flow regime (Scott et al., 1987). 2.3.1.4. Flow pattern maps In order to obtain optimal design parameters and operating conditions, it is necessary to clearly understand multiphase flow regimes and the boundaries between them, where the hydrodynamics of the flow as well as the flow mechanisms change significantly from one flow regime to another. If an undesirable flow regime is not anticipated in the design, the resulting flow pattern can cause system pressure fluctuation and system vibration, and even mechanical failures of piping components. Most early attempts to predict the occurrence of the various flow patterns in pipes were based on conducting experimental tests in small diameter pipes at low pressures with air and water. The results of experimental studies were presented as a flow pattern map. The respective pattern was represented as areas on a plot, the coordinates of which were the dimensional variables (i.e., superficial phase...
